{"id":1384,"date":"2009-11-11T03:31:09","date_gmt":"2009-11-11T00:31:09","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/localhost\/wordpress\/2009\/11\/11\/aklin-dogusu-1bolum-alan-woods-ted-grant\/"},"modified":"2024-04-28T20:52:29","modified_gmt":"2024-04-28T17:52:29","slug":"aklin-dogusu-1bolum-alan-woods-ted-grant","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/11\/11\/aklin-dogusu-1bolum-alan-woods-ted-grant\/","title":{"rendered":"Akl\u0131n Do\u011fu\u015fu (1.B\u00f6l\u00fcm) | Alan Woods &#8211; Ted Grant"},"content":{"rendered":"<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><em><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-8031 size-thumbnail alignleft\" src=\"http:\/\/narteks.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ted_Grant-150x150.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"150\" height=\"150\" \/>Beyin Bulmacas\u0131<\/em><\/p>\n<p>\u201cOrganik do\u011fa \u00f6l\u00fc do\u011fadan \u00e7\u0131k\u0131p geli\u015fti; canl\u0131 do\u011fa d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeye yetenekli bir form \u00fcretti. \u00d6nce d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme yetene\u011finde olmayan madde vard\u0131; ondan, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnen madde, yani insan \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. E\u011fer durum buysa \u2013ve do\u011fa bilimlerinden biliyoruz ki \u00f6yledir\u2013 akl\u0131n maddenin anas\u0131 olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131, maddenin akl\u0131n anas\u0131 oldu\u011fu a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131r. \u00c7ocuklar asla ebeveynlerden daha ya\u015fl\u0131 olamazlar. \u00abAk\u0131l\u00bb sonra gelir, ve bu y\u00fczden onu d\u00f6l olarak g\u00f6rmeliyiz, ebeveyn olarak de\u011fil &#8230; madde d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnen insan\u0131n belirmesinden \u00f6nce vard\u0131; herhangi t\u00fcrden bir \u00abak\u0131l\u00bb d\u00fcnya y\u00fczeyinde belirmeden \u00e7ok \u00f6nce d\u00fcnyan\u0131n kendisi vard\u0131. Ba\u015fka bir deyi\u015fle madde nesnel olarak, \u00abak\u0131l\u00bbdan ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z olarak vard\u0131r. Ama \u00abak\u0131l\u00bb denilen ve hi\u00e7bir zaman ve hi\u00e7bir yerde maddesiz varolmayan psi\u015fik olgular asla maddeden ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z olmad\u0131lar. D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce beyin olmaks\u0131z\u0131n varolamaz; arzu eden bir organizma olmadan arzular imk\u00e2ns\u0131zd\u0131r&#8230; Di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle, psi\u015fik olgular, yani bilin\u00e7 olgusu, yaln\u0131zca belirli bir tarzda \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmi\u015f maddenin bir \u00f6zelli\u011fi, bu maddenin bir \u00abfonksiyonudur\u00bb.\u201d (Nikolay Buharin)<\/p>\n<p>\u201cBeyin mekanizmalar\u0131n\u0131n yorumlan\u0131\u015f\u0131, biyolojinin son gizemlerinden birini, g\u00f6lgeli mistisizmin ve \u015faibeli dinsel felsefenin son s\u0131\u011f\u0131na\u011f\u0131n\u0131 temsil etmektedir.\u201d (Steven Rose)<\/p>\n<p>G\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz gibi, felsefenin merkezi konusu, y\u00fczy\u0131llard\u0131r d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ve varl\u0131k aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fki sorunu olmu\u015ftur. \u015eimdi nihayet, bilimin att\u0131\u011f\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck ileri ad\u0131mlar, akl\u0131n ger\u00e7ek do\u011fas\u0131na ve nas\u0131l i\u015fledi\u011fine \u0131\u015f\u0131k tutmaya ba\u015fl\u0131yor. Bu ilerlemeler, materyalist bak\u0131\u015f\u0131n \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 bir do\u011frulan\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 sunar. \u00d6zellikle beyin ve n\u00f6robiyoloji hakk\u0131nda y\u00fcr\u00fcyen tart\u0131\u015fmalarda durum budur. \u0130dealizmin son s\u0131\u011f\u0131na\u011f\u0131 sald\u0131r\u0131ya u\u011framaktad\u0131r. Ama bu sald\u0131r\u0131, idealistleri inat\u00e7\u0131 bir direni\u015f g\u00f6stermekten al\u0131koymuyor:<\/p>\n<p style=\"text-align: justify;\">Yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131n bu madde-d\u0131\u015f\u0131 \u00f6\u011fesini ara\u015ft\u0131rmak imk\u00e2ns\u0131z hale geldi\u011finde, \u00e7o\u011fu kimse bu i\u015fi b\u0131rakt\u0131. Yaln\u0131zca maddenin ger\u00e7ek oldu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeye ba\u015flad\u0131lar. Ve b\u00f6ylelikle en derin d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerimiz, kimya yasalar\u0131na g\u00f6re i\u015fleyen beyin h\u00fccrelerinin \u00fcr\u00fcnlerine indirgendi&#8230; D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceye e\u015flik eden elektriksel beyin sinyallerini inceleyebiliriz, ama Platon\u2019u sinir pulslar\u0131na ya da Aristoteles\u2019i alfa-dalgalar\u0131na indirgeyemeyiz&#8230; Fiziksel hareketlerin betimlemeleri asla bu hareketlerin anlam\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131\u011fa \u00e7\u0131karmayacakt\u0131r. Biyoloji ancak, n\u00f6ronlar ve sinapslar\u0131n kapal\u0131 d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131 inceleyebilir.[1]<\/p>\n<p>\u201cAk\u0131l\u201d dedi\u011fimiz \u015fey beynin varolu\u015f tarz\u0131ndan ba\u015fka bir \u015fey de\u011fildir. Milyonlarca y\u0131ll\u0131k evrimin \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc olan muazzam \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde karma\u015f\u0131k bir olgudur. Beyin ve sinir sisteminde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fen karma\u015f\u0131k s\u00fcre\u00e7leri ve bir o kadar karma\u015f\u0131k olan zihinsel s\u00fcre\u00e7lerle \u00e7evre aras\u0131ndaki kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 ili\u015fkileri \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmlemekteki zorluk, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin do\u011fas\u0131n\u0131 do\u011fru bir bi\u00e7imde anlamam\u0131z\u0131n y\u00fczy\u0131llarca gecikmesine neden oldu. Bu durum, idealistlerin ve il\u00e2hiyat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n, bedende ge\u00e7ici olarak konaklamak \u00fczere tasarlanm\u0131\u015f maddesel olmayan bir \u00f6z olarak d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclen \u201cruh\u201dun mistik addedilen do\u011fas\u0131 \u00fczerine spek\u00fclasyonlar yapmalar\u0131na olanak tan\u0131d\u0131. Modern n\u00f6robiyolojinin at\u0131l\u0131mlar\u0131, idealistlerin nihayet son s\u0131\u011f\u0131naklar\u0131ndan da kovulmalar\u0131 anlam\u0131na gelir. Beyin ve sinir sisteminin s\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7\u00f6zmeye ba\u015flad\u0131k\u00e7a, akl\u0131, do\u011fa-\u00fcst\u00fc etkenlere ba\u015fvurmaks\u0131z\u0131n, beyin faaliyetlerinin toplam\u0131 olarak a\u00e7\u0131klamak giderek daha kolay hale gelmektedir.<\/p>\n<p>N\u00f6robiyolog Steven Rose\u2019un s\u00f6zleriyle, ak\u0131l ve bilin\u00e7 \u201cinsano\u011flunun ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131 yolunda bir dizi evrimsel de\u011fi\u015fim i\u00e7inde geli\u015fen \u00f6zg\u00fcn beyin yap\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n evriminin ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz sonucudur\u2026 Bilin\u00e7, kendine \u00f6zg\u00fc bir karma\u015f\u0131kl\u0131k d\u00fczeyinin ve serebral kortekse* ait sinir h\u00fccreleri (n\u00f6ronlar) aras\u0131ndaki etkile\u015fim derecesinin evriminin bir sonucudur. Bunun ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 bi\u00e7im her bireyde, bireyin \u00e7evresiyle ili\u015fkisi i\u00e7erisinde geli\u015fimi taraf\u0131ndan b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde de\u011fi\u015ftirilmi\u015f olsa da durum budur.\u201d[2]<br \/>\n<em><br \/>\nAk\u0131l \u2013 Bir Makine mi?<\/em><\/p>\n<p>\u0130nsan beyninin kavran\u0131\u015f\u0131, modern bilimin do\u011fu\u015fu ve kapitalist toplumun ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131ndan bu yana ge\u00e7en son 300 y\u0131lda \u00f6nemli \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde de\u011fi\u015fti. Beyinin alg\u0131lan\u0131\u015f tarz\u0131, tarihsel olarak, mevcut dinsel ve felsefi \u00f6nyarg\u0131larla bezenmi\u015ftir. Kilise i\u00e7in ak\u0131l \u201cTanr\u0131n\u0131n evi\u201d idi. 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n mekanik materyalizmi, akl\u0131 saat mekanizmas\u0131 gibi i\u015fleyen bir makine olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcyordu. Son zamanlarda ise ak\u0131l, olas\u0131l\u0131ksal olaylar\u0131n olas\u0131 olmayan bir toplam\u0131 olarak tan\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Katolik ideolojinin her \u015feye egemen oldu\u011fu Orta\u00e7a\u011fda ruhun bedenin b\u00fct\u00fcn par\u00e7alar\u0131na s\u0131zm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu s\u00f6ylendi; beyin, beden, ak\u0131l ya da madde ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lamazd\u0131. Copernicus, Galileo ve nihayet Newton ve Descartes\u2019\u0131n mekanik materyalist g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerle ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131yla bu bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131nda bir kayma oldu.<\/p>\n<p>Descartes i\u00e7in d\u00fcnya makine benzeri bir \u015fey ve canl\u0131 organizmalar da yaln\u0131zca \u00f6zel tipte saatimsi ya da hidrolik makinelerdi. Bilime egemen olan ve makineyi canl\u0131 organizmalar i\u00e7in bir model olarak alan \u00f6zg\u00fcn bir d\u00fcnya g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc me\u015frula\u015ft\u0131ran temel metafor i\u015flevi g\u00f6ren de bu Kartezyen makine imgesidir. Beden, par\u00e7alara ayr\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda \u00f6zsel niteli\u011fini yitiren ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lamaz bir b\u00fct\u00fcnd\u00fcr. Tam tersine, makinelerse, anla\u015f\u0131lmalar\u0131 i\u00e7in s\u00f6k\u00fclebilirler ve sonra tekrar bir araya getirilebilirler. Her par\u00e7a ayr\u0131 ve \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmlenebilir bir i\u015flevi yerine getirir, ve b\u00fct\u00fcn, birbiri \u00fczerine etkisi olan ayr\u0131 par\u00e7alar\u0131n i\u015fleyi\u015fiyle tan\u0131mlanabilen d\u00fczenli bir tarzda i\u015fler.<\/p>\n<p>Beyin imgesi her a\u015famada, o d\u00f6nemin biliminin s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 sadakatle yans\u0131tm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n mekanik d\u00fcnya g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc g\u00fcn\u00fcn en ileri biliminin mekanik oldu\u011fu ger\u00e7e\u011fini yans\u0131t\u0131yordu. B\u00fcy\u00fck Newton t\u00fcm evreni mekani\u011fin yasalar\u0131yla a\u00e7\u0131klamam\u0131\u015f m\u0131yd\u0131? O halde neden insan bedeni ve akl\u0131 ba\u015fka tarzda i\u015fliyor olsundu? Descartes insan bedenini bir t\u00fcr kendi kendine i\u015fleyen makine olarak tan\u0131mlad\u0131\u011f\u0131nda bu bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 benimsemi\u015fti. Ama Descartes dindar bir Katolik oldu\u011fundan, \u00f6l\u00fcms\u00fcz ruhun bu makinenin bir par\u00e7as\u0131 oldu\u011funu kabul edemezdi. Ruh, beynin pineal bezi denilen \u00f6zel b\u00f6lgesinde yer alan b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle ayr\u0131 bir \u015feydi. Ruh, bedendeki ge\u00e7ici konaklamas\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc beynin bu kuytu k\u00f6\u015fesinden, makineye hayat veriyordu. Steven Rose \u015f\u00f6yle diyor:<\/p>\n<p>Bat\u0131 bilimsel d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesindeki ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz ama \u00f6l\u00fcmc\u00fcl kopukluk b\u00f6ylelikle geli\u015fti. Descartes\u2019ta ve onun takip\u00e7ilerinde \u201cd\u00fcalizm\u201d olarak bilinen bu dogma, g\u00f6rece\u011fimiz gibi, insanlar\u0131n sonu\u00e7ta molek\u00fcllerin hareketinden \u201cba\u015fka bir \u015fey olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131\u201d kabul etmek istemeyen her t\u00fcrden indirgemeci materyalizmin ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz sonucu olan bir dogmayd\u0131. D\u00fcalizm, dinin ve indirgemeci bilimin iki y\u00fczy\u0131l boyunca ideolojik \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fck elde ederek di\u011ferini alt etmek i\u00e7in ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz olarak b\u00fcy\u00fck bir \u00e7eki\u015fme i\u00e7ine girmelerini m\u00fcmk\u00fcn k\u0131lan mekanizmin paradoksuna bir \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmd\u00fc. O g\u00fcn\u00fcn kapitalist d\u00fczeniyle uyumlu bir \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcmd\u00fc bu, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131, i\u015fg\u00fcnlerinde, insanlar\u0131n nesnele\u015ftirilmi\u015f ve \u00e7eli\u015fkisizce s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fclme yetene\u011finde olan salt birer fiziksel mekanizma olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclmesini m\u00fcmk\u00fcn k\u0131l\u0131yordu. Beri yandan Pazar g\u00fcnlerinde, bedenin \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00fcnlerde maruz kald\u0131\u011f\u0131 travmalardan etkilenmeyen, s\u0131n\u0131rlanmam\u0131\u015f ve bedensiz bir ruhun \u00f6l\u00fcms\u00fczl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ve \u00f6zg\u00fcr iradesi ileri s\u00fcr\u00fclerek ideolojik kontrol peki\u015ftirilebilirdi.[3]<\/p>\n<p>18. ve 19. y\u00fczy\u0131llarda akl\u0131n \u201cmakinedeki hayalet\u201d bi\u00e7imindeki tasar\u0131m\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fti. Elektri\u011fin ke\u015ffiyle beyin ve sinir sistemi bir elektrik \u015febekesi olarak alg\u0131land\u0131. Y\u00fczy\u0131l d\u00f6n\u00fcm\u00fcnde, beynin farkl\u0131 organlardan gelen mesajlar\u0131 i\u015fledi\u011fi telefon santrali analojisi do\u011fdu. Kitlesel \u00fcretim \u00e7a\u011f\u0131yla birlikte de, bir \u00e7ocuk ansiklopedisindeki \u015fu al\u0131nt\u0131da tipikle\u015fen, i\u015f organizasyonu modeli \u00e7\u0131ka geldi:<\/p>\n<p>Beynimizi b\u00fcy\u00fck bir \u015firketin y\u00f6netim birimi olarak d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcn. O, burada g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz gibi b\u00f6l\u00fcmlere ayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Merkez ofisteki b\u00fcy\u00fck masada t\u00fcm b\u00f6l\u00fcmlere telefon hatlar\u0131yla ba\u011fl\u0131 olan Genel M\u00fcd\u00fcr \u2013kendi bilinciniz\u2013 oturur. \u00c7evrenizde ba\u015f yard\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131z vard\u0131r; g\u00f6rme, tatma, koku, duyma ve dokunma gibi Gelen Mesaj Amirleri (son ikisi merkez ofisin arkas\u0131nda gizlidir). Bu amirlerin yan\u0131nda da konu\u015fmay\u0131 ve kollar\u0131, bacaklar\u0131 ve bedenin t\u00fcm di\u011fer par\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131 kontrol eden Giden Mesaj Amirleri bulunur. Elbette, sadece en \u00f6nemli mesajlar sizin ofisinize ula\u015f\u0131r. Kalbi, ci\u011ferleri ve mideyi \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131rmak gibi rutin g\u00f6revler ya da kaslar\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131n k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck ayr\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6zetlenmesi Medulla Oblongatadaki* Otomatik \u0130\u015flemler M\u00fcd\u00fcrleri ve Beyincikteki Refleks \u0130\u015flemleri M\u00fcd\u00fcr\u00fc taraf\u0131ndan y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fcl\u00fcrler. T\u00fcm di\u011fer b\u00f6l\u00fcmler, bilimcilerin serebrum** dedikleri \u015feyi olu\u015ftururlar.<\/p>\n<p>Hayret verici hesaplar\u0131 yapabilen bilgisayar\u0131n ke\u015ffiyle birlikte beyinle paralellik kurulmas\u0131 ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz hale geldi. Bilgisayarlar\u0131n bilgi depolama bi\u00e7imine bellek denildi. Gittik\u00e7e daha g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bilgisayarlar yap\u0131ld\u0131. Bir bilgisayar insan beynine ne kadar yakla\u015fabilirdi? Nihayet, bilim-kurgu, bilgisayarlar\u0131n insan zek\u00e2s\u0131n\u0131 ge\u00e7ti\u011fi ve d\u00fcnyay\u0131 ele ge\u00e7irmek i\u00e7in sava\u015ft\u0131klar\u0131 Terminat\u00f6r filmlerini \u00f6n\u00fcm\u00fcze getirdi. Oysa Steven Rose son kitab\u0131nda \u015f\u00f6yle a\u00e7\u0131kl\u0131yor:<\/p>\n<p>Beyin, bilgisayardaki gibi bilgiyle de\u011fil anlamla \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131r. Ve anlam, do\u011fal ve toplumsal \u00e7evreleriyle etkile\u015fim i\u00e7indeki bireyler taraf\u0131ndan ifade edilen, tarihsel ve geli\u015fimsel olarak \u015fekillenmi\u015f bir s\u00fcre\u00e7tir. Ger\u00e7ekten de, belle\u011fi incelemenin sorunlar\u0131ndan birisi, onun kesinlikle diyalektik bir olgu olmas\u0131d\u0131r. Zira bizler her hat\u0131rlay\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131zda baz\u0131 bak\u0131mlardan an\u0131lar\u0131m\u0131z \u00fczerinde i\u015flem yapar ve onlar\u0131 d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fcr\u00fcz; onlar basit\u00e7e depodan \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131l\u0131p, bir kez dan\u0131\u015f\u0131l\u0131p, de\u011fi\u015fmemi\u015f olarak yerlerine konmazlar. An\u0131lar\u0131m\u0131z onlar\u0131 her hat\u0131rlad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda yeniden yarat\u0131l\u0131rlar.[4]<\/p>\n<p><em>Beyin Nedir?<\/em><\/p>\n<p>\u0130nsan beyni, maddenin evriminin ula\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 en \u00fcst noktad\u0131r. Fiziksel olarak yakla\u015f\u0131k 1,5 kilogramd\u0131r ve bir\u00e7ok insan organ\u0131ndan daha a\u011f\u0131rd\u0131r. Y\u00fczeyi bir ceviz gibi k\u0131vr\u0131ml\u0131d\u0131r ve so\u011fuk yulaf lapas\u0131n\u0131 and\u0131ran bir rengi ve k\u0131vam\u0131 vard\u0131r. Ne var ki biyolojik olarak son derecede karma\u015f\u0131kt\u0131r. Muazzam say\u0131da, muhtemelen toplam 100 milyar kadar h\u00fccre (n\u00f6ronlar) i\u00e7ermektedir. Fakat her bir n\u00f6ronun, kendisine destek hizmeti g\u00f6ren glia denen daha k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck h\u00fccrelerden olu\u015fan bir topluluk i\u00e7ine g\u00f6m\u00fcl\u00fc oldu\u011funu ke\u015ffetti\u011fimizde bu say\u0131 bile c\u00fcce kal\u0131r.<\/p>\n<p>Beynin b\u00fcy\u00fck b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc, iki e\u015fit par\u00e7aya b\u00f6l\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015f olan serebrum olu\u015fturur. Serebrumun y\u00fczeyi korteks olarak adland\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r. Korteksin b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc insan\u0131 b\u00fct\u00fcn di\u011fer organizmalardan ay\u0131r\u0131r. Serebrum kabaca belirli v\u00fccut fonksiyonlar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k gelen ve alg\u0131sal bilgiyi i\u015fleyen b\u00f6lgelere ya da loplara ayr\u0131l\u0131r. Serebrumun arkas\u0131nda, v\u00fccuttaki t\u00fcm k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck kas hareketlerini kontrol eden beyincik uzan\u0131r. Bu k\u0131s\u0131mlar\u0131n alt\u0131nda omurili\u011fin devam\u0131 olan kal\u0131n bir sap ya da beyin sap\u0131 bulunur. Buras\u0131, her \u015feyi beyinle ileti\u015fime sokmak \u00fczere, beyinden \u00e7\u0131karak omurilikten ge\u00e7en ve v\u00fccudun t\u00fcm sinir sistemine uzanan sinir liflerini ta\u015f\u0131r.<\/p>\n<p>\u0130nsanlar\u0131 di\u011fer hayvanlardan kesin olarak ay\u0131ran b\u00fcy\u00fck beyine, esasen, neo-korteks olarak bilinen sinir h\u00fccrelerinin ince d\u0131\u015f katman\u0131n\u0131n kal\u0131nla\u015fmas\u0131 yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ancak bu geni\u015fleme beynin t\u00fcm b\u00f6lgeleri i\u00e7in ayn\u0131 de\u011fildir. Planlama ve \u00f6ng\u00f6r\u00fcyle ilgili olan \u00f6n loplar di\u011fer b\u00f6lgelerden \u00e7ok daha fazla b\u00fcy\u00fcm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Ayn\u0131 \u015fey, kafatas\u0131n\u0131n arka k\u0131sm\u0131ndaki beyincik i\u00e7in de ge\u00e7erlidir; beyincik, otomatik beceriler edinme yetene\u011fiyle ve bisiklet s\u00fcrme, araba s\u00fcrerken vites de\u011fi\u015ftirme ya da pijaman\u0131n d\u00fc\u011fmelerini ilikleme gibi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeksizin yerine getirdi\u011fimiz bir s\u00fcr\u00fc g\u00fcndelik eylemimizle ili\u015fkilidir.<\/p>\n<p>Beynin kendisi, bir kan kayna\u011f\u0131ndan uzak b\u00f6lgelere besin ta\u015f\u0131yan bir dola\u015f\u0131m sistemine sahiptir. Ya\u015famsal \u00f6nemi olan oksijen ve glikozu ta\u015f\u0131yan kan\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc beyin \u00e7eker. Bir yeti\u015fkinin beyni v\u00fccut a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n %2\u2019sini olu\u015ftursa bile, beynin oksijen t\u00fcketimi toplam oksijen t\u00fcketiminin %20\u2019sidir. Bir bebekte bu %50 gibi b\u00fcy\u00fck bir orandad\u0131r. V\u00fccudun glikoz t\u00fcketiminin %20\u2019si de beyinde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fir. Kalp taraf\u0131ndan pompalanan kan\u0131n be\u015fte biri beyinden ge\u00e7er. Sinirler bilgiyi elektriksel olarak iletirler. Bir sinirden ge\u00e7en sinyal bunu bir elektrik dalgas\u0131 bi\u00e7iminde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fir; yani h\u00fccrenin g\u00f6vdesinden sinir lifinin ucuna ilerleyen bir puls bi\u00e7iminde. Demek ki beynin dili, sadece miktar a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan de\u011fil, frekans a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan da elektriksel uyar\u0131mlardan olu\u015fur. Steven Rose \u015funlar\u0131 s\u00f6yl\u00fcyor:<\/p>\n<p>\u00d6ng\u00f6r\u00fclerimizi dayand\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z bilgi, \u00e7e\u015fitli dalga boylar\u0131 ve \u015fiddetteki \u0131\u015f\u0131k ve ses dalgalar\u0131, s\u0131cakl\u0131k dalgalanmalar\u0131, derinin belli noktalar\u0131ndaki bas\u0131n\u00e7, burun ya da dil taraf\u0131ndan saptanan belli kimyasal maddelerin yo\u011funlu\u011fu gibi bi\u00e7imlerde v\u00fccudun y\u00fczeyine ula\u015fan verilere ba\u011fl\u0131d\u0131r. V\u00fccut i\u00e7erisinde bu veriler bir dizi elektriksel sinyallere d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fcl\u00fcrler, bu sinyaller \u00f6zel sinirler \u00fczerinden ge\u00e7erek merkezi beyin b\u00f6lgelerine ula\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131r ve orada birbirleriyle etkile\u015ferek belli tiplerde yan\u0131tlar \u00fcretilir.<\/p>\n<p>N\u00f6ron, bu bilgi aktar\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftiren (mesajlar aksonlardan sinapslara ula\u015f\u0131r) \u00e7ok say\u0131da \u00f6zellikten (dendritler, h\u00fccre g\u00f6vdesi, akson, sinapslar) olu\u015fur. Di\u011fer bir deyi\u015fle, n\u00f6ron beyin sisteminin temel birimidir. Her koordine kas hareketinde binlerce motor n\u00f6ron yer al\u0131r. Daha karma\u015f\u0131k hareketlerde milyonlarcas\u0131 yer al\u0131r; her ne kadar bir milyon say\u0131s\u0131 bile insan korteksindeki toplam say\u0131n\u0131n yaln\u0131zca yakla\u015f\u0131k y\u00fczde 0,01\u2019ini temsil ediyor olsa da. Ama beyin ayr\u0131 par\u00e7alar\u0131n bir montaj\u0131 olarak d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclemez. Beyinin ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 bile\u015fiminin analizi ya\u015famsal bir \u00f6nem ta\u015f\u0131sa bile, bu y\u00f6ntem ancak bir noktaya kadar i\u015fe yarayabilir.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cBeynin davran\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n betimlenebilece\u011fi bir\u00e7ok d\u00fczey vard\u0131r\u201d diyor Rose. \u201cAtomlar\u0131n kuantum yap\u0131s\u0131 ya da beyni olu\u015fturan kimyasallar\u0131n molek\u00fcler \u00f6zellikleri; i\u00e7indeki tekil h\u00fccrelerin elektro-mikrografik g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fc\u015f\u00fc; kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 etkile\u015fim i\u00e7indeki bir sistem olarak n\u00f6ronlar\u0131n davran\u0131\u015f\u0131; bu n\u00f6ronlar\u0131n zaman i\u00e7inde de\u011fi\u015fen bir \u00f6rg\u00fc olarak evrimsel ya da geli\u015fimsel tarihi; s\u00f6z konusu beyne sahip insan bireyinin davran\u0131\u015fsal tepkisi; bu insan\u0131n aile ya da toplumsal \u00e7evresi vb. gibi d\u00fczeylerde beynin davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131 betimlenebilir.\u201d[5] Beyni anlamak i\u00e7in, t\u00fcm par\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131n karma\u015f\u0131k diyalektik i\u00e7 ba\u011f\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 kavramak gerekir. Bir s\u00fcr\u00fc bilim dal\u0131n\u0131 bir araya getirmek gerekir; etnoloji, psikoloji, fizyoloji, farmakoloji, biyokimya, molek\u00fcler biyoloji ve hatta sibernetik ve matematik.<\/p>\n<p><em>Beynin Evrimi<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Antik mitolojide tanr\u0131\u00e7a Minerva tam donan\u0131ml\u0131 olarak J\u00fcpiter\u2019in ba\u015f\u0131ndan \u00e7\u0131k\u0131vermi\u015ftir. Beyin bu kadar talihli de\u011fildi. Bir anda yarat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olmak \u015f\u00f6yle dursun, beyin, mevcut karma\u015f\u0131k sistemine ancak milyonlarca y\u0131ll\u0131k bir s\u00fcrede evrimle\u015fti. Evrimin \u00e7ok ilkel bir d\u00fczeyinde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. Tek h\u00fccreli canl\u0131lar belirli davran\u0131\u015f kal\u0131plar\u0131 g\u00f6sterirler (\u00f6rne\u011fin, \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011fa ya da besinlere do\u011fru hareket). \u00c7ok h\u00fccreli ya\u015fam\u0131n do\u011fu\u015fuyla birlikte hayvan ve bitki ya\u015fam\u0131 aras\u0131nda keskin bir ayr\u0131m olu\u015ftu. Bitkiler, \u201cileti\u015fim\u201d kurmalar\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayan i\u00e7 sinyal ayg\u0131tlar\u0131na sahip olsalar da, bitki evrimi, sinirlerin ve beynin evriminden ba\u015fka y\u00f6ne d\u00f6nd\u00fc. Hayvanlar \u00e2leminde hareket, v\u00fccudun farkl\u0131 k\u0131s\u0131mlar\u0131ndaki h\u00fccreler aras\u0131nda h\u0131zl\u0131 bir ileti\u015fimi zorunlu k\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n<p>T\u00fcm gereksinimlerine tek bir h\u00fccrenin i\u00e7inde sahip olan en basit organizmalar kendine yeterlidirler. H\u00fccrenin bir k\u0131sm\u0131yla di\u011fer k\u0131s\u0131mlar\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki ileti\u015fim g\u00f6rece basittir. \u00d6te yandan, \u00e7ok h\u00fccreli organizmalar nitel olarak farkl\u0131d\u0131rlar ve h\u00fccreler aras\u0131nda uzmanla\u015fman\u0131n geli\u015fimini m\u00fcmk\u00fcn k\u0131larlar. Belirli h\u00fccreler \u00f6ncelikle sindirimle u\u011fra\u015fabilirler, di\u011ferleri koruyucu bir tabaka olu\u015ftururlar, di\u011ferleri dola\u015f\u0131m\u0131 sa\u011flarlar vs. Kimyasal sinyaller (hormonlar) en ilkel \u00e7ok h\u00fccreli organizmalarda bile mevcuttur. Bu ilkel d\u00fczeyde dahi uzmanla\u015fm\u0131\u015f h\u00fccreler bulunabilir. Bu, sinir sistemine do\u011fru at\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir ad\u0131md\u0131r. Yass\u0131 solucan gibi daha karma\u015f\u0131k organizmalar, n\u00f6ronlar\u0131n bir ganglionda* k\u00fcmelendikleri bir sinir sistemi geli\u015ftirmi\u015flerdir. Ganglionun, sinirler ve beyin aras\u0131ndaki evrimsel halka oldu\u011fu saptanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu sinir h\u00fccresi k\u00fcmeleri, b\u00f6ceklerde, kabuklu hayvanlarda ve yumu\u015fak\u00e7alarda g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcrler.<\/p>\n<p>Bir kafan\u0131n geli\u015fmesi ve g\u00f6z oyuklar\u0131n\u0131n ve a\u011fz\u0131n bu kafada kendilerine bir yer bulmalar\u0131, hayvan\u0131n hareket etmekte oldu\u011fu y\u00f6n hakk\u0131nda bilgi edinmesinde bir avantajd\u0131r. Bu geli\u015fimle uyumlu olarak bir ganglia grubu yass\u0131 solucan\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda k\u00fcmelenir. Bu k\u00fcmelenme, ilkel bi\u00e7imine ra\u011fmen beynin evrimini temsil eder. Yass\u0131 solucan ayn\u0131 zamanda, geli\u015fmi\u015f beynin kilit bir \u00f6zelli\u011fi olan \u00f6\u011frenme yetene\u011fi de sergiler. Bu geli\u015fme beynin evrimine giden yolda ileri do\u011fru devrimci bir s\u0131\u00e7ramay\u0131 temsil eder.<\/p>\n<p>On y\u0131l kadar \u00f6nce Amerikal\u0131 sinirbilimciler insanlarda bellek olu\u015fumu i\u00e7in gerekli olan temel h\u00fccre mekanizmalar\u0131n\u0131n salyangozlarda da mevcut oldu\u011funu buldular. Columbia \u00dcniversitesinden Profes\u00f6r Eric Kandel, Aplysia Californica denilen bir deniz salyangozunun \u00f6\u011frenme ve bellek yetene\u011fini inceledi ve bu salyangozlar\u0131n, insanlarda da bulunan baz\u0131 temel \u00f6zellikleri sergilediklerini buldu. Fark \u015fudur ki, insan beyni 100 milyar sinir h\u00fccresine sahipken, Aplysia daha b\u00fcy\u00fck boyutlarda ama yaln\u0131zca birka\u00e7 bin sinir h\u00fccresine sahiptir. Bu mekanizmalar\u0131 bir deniz salyangozuyla payla\u015fmam\u0131z olgusu, idealistlerin insano\u011flunu t\u00fcm di\u011fer hayvanlardan ayr\u0131 ve uzak, bir t\u00fcr e\u015fsiz yarat\u0131k olarak sunmaktaki inat\u00e7\u0131 \u00e7abalar\u0131na yeterli bir yan\u0131tt\u0131r. Beynin hemen hemen her fonksiyonu bir bi\u00e7imde belle\u011fe ba\u011fl\u0131d\u0131r. Bu olguyu a\u00e7\u0131klamak i\u00e7in hi\u00e7bir il\u00e2hi m\u00fcdahaleye gerek yoktur. Do\u011fal s\u00fcre\u00e7ler \u00e7ok tutucu olma e\u011filimindedirler. Belli fonksiyonlar\u0131 yerine getirmekte yararl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 kan\u0131tlam\u0131\u015f bir uyarlanma bir kez sa\u011flan\u0131nca, art\u0131k evrim boyunca s\u00fcrekli olarak tekrarlan\u0131r ve evrimsel avantaj sundu\u011fu bir d\u00fczeye dek geni\u015fletip geli\u015ftirilir.<\/p>\n<p>Evrim, hayvanlar\u0131n beyinlerinde, \u00f6zellikle \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck beyinlere sahip \u00fcst primatlar ve insanlar\u0131nkinde bir\u00e7ok yenili\u011fi g\u00fcndeme getirdi. Aplysia bir \u015feyi birka\u00e7 hafta i\u00e7in \u201chat\u0131rlasa\u201d da, onun belle\u011fi yaln\u0131zca, insanlarda al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131k olarak bilinen bir zihinsel etkinlik d\u00fczeyini i\u00e7erir. Bu t\u00fcr bir bellek, \u00f6rne\u011fin nas\u0131l y\u00fcz\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc hat\u0131rlamada s\u00f6z konusudur. Beyni hasar g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015f insanlarda yap\u0131lan ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar, olgular\u0131 hat\u0131rlama yetene\u011finin ve al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131klar\u0131n beyinde ayr\u0131 yerlerde depoland\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermektedir. Bir ki\u015fi olgu belle\u011fini yitirebilir, ama yine de bisiklet s\u00fcrebilir. \u0130nsan akl\u0131n\u0131 dolduran an\u0131lar, ku\u015fkusuz bir salyangozun sinir sisteminde i\u015fleyen s\u00fcre\u00e7lerden sonsuz \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde daha karma\u015f\u0131kt\u0131r.<\/p>\n<p>Beynin s\u00fcregiden b\u00fcy\u00fcmesi, hayvan evriminde b\u00fcy\u00fck bir de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fi gerektirdi. Eklembacakl\u0131lar\u0131n ya da yumu\u015fak\u00e7alar\u0131n sinir sistemi, temel bir tasar\u0131m sorunu nedeniyle daha fazla geli\u015femez. Sinir h\u00fccreleri ba\u011f\u0131rsak etraf\u0131nda bir halka bi\u00e7iminde d\u00fczenlenmi\u015flerdir ve e\u011fer geni\u015flerlerse ba\u011f\u0131rsa\u011f\u0131 gitgide s\u0131k\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u0131rlar; \u00f6r\u00fcmcekte bu s\u0131n\u0131r \u00e7ok keskin bir bi\u00e7imde a\u00e7\u0131\u011fa \u00e7\u0131kar, ba\u011f\u0131rsak sinir halkas\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan \u00f6yle daralt\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ki, \u00f6r\u00fcmcek yiyece\u011fini yaln\u0131zca ince bir s\u0131v\u0131 olarak sindirebilir. B\u00fcnyeleri kendi a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131klar\u0131 alt\u0131nda par\u00e7alanaca\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in b\u00f6cekler belirli bir b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn \u00f6tesinde b\u00fcy\u00fcyemezler. Beyin b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc fiziksel s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131na ula\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Korku filmlerindeki dev b\u00f6cekler bilim-kurgu alan\u0131nda kalmaya mahk\u00fbmdurlar.<\/p>\n<p>Beynin daha da geli\u015fmesi sinirlerin ba\u011f\u0131rsaktan ayr\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 gerektirir. Omurgal\u0131 bal\u0131\u011f\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131, omurilik ve beynin sonraki geli\u015fim modelini sunar. Kafatas\u0131 bo\u015flu\u011fu b\u00fcy\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f bir beyni bar\u0131nd\u0131rabilir ve sinirler beyinden \u00e7\u0131karak omurga i\u00e7inden ge\u00e7ip omurili\u011fin a\u015fa\u011f\u0131lar\u0131na ula\u015f\u0131rlar. G\u00f6z \u00e7ukurlar\u0131nda optik desenleri sinir sistemine sunabilen g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fc olu\u015fturucu bir g\u00f6z geli\u015fti. Karada amfibilerin ve s\u00fcr\u00fcngenlerin ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131, \u00f6n beyin b\u00f6lgesinin muazzam geli\u015fimine tan\u0131k oldu ki, bu da optik loblar sayesinde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti.<\/p>\n<p>Yirmi y\u0131l \u00f6nce, California \u00dcniversitesinden Harry Jerison, beyin b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fcn v\u00fccut b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcyle ba\u011f\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 oldu\u011fu fikrini geli\u015ftirdi ve bunun evrimsel geli\u015fiminin izini s\u00fcrd\u00fc. Jerison s\u00fcr\u00fcngenlerin 300 milyon y\u0131l \u00f6nce k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck beyinli olduklar\u0131n\u0131 ve bug\u00fcn de \u00f6yle kalm\u0131\u015f olduklar\u0131n\u0131 ke\u015ffetti. Dinozorlar da dahil olmak \u00fczere, s\u00fcr\u00fcngenlerin beyin b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fcn v\u00fccut b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne ba\u011fl\u0131 olarak \u00e7izilen grafi\u011fi d\u00fcz bir \u00e7izgi olu\u015fturmu\u015ftur. Ne var ki, yakla\u015f\u0131k 200 milyon y\u0131l \u00f6nce ilk memelilerin evrimi g\u00f6reli beyin b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde bir s\u0131\u00e7ramaya i\u015faret eder. Bu k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck gece hayvanlar\u0131 ortalama bir s\u00fcr\u00fcngenden d\u00f6rt be\u015f kat daha b\u00fcy\u00fck beyinlere sahiptiler. Bu, b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde, yaln\u0131zca memelilere \u00f6zg\u00fc olan serebral korteksin geli\u015fimi nedeniyleydi. Beyin yakla\u015f\u0131k 100 milyon y\u0131l ayn\u0131 g\u00f6reli b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckte kald\u0131. Sonra, 65 milyon y\u0131l kadar \u00f6nce, h\u0131zl\u0131 bir geli\u015fme g\u00f6sterdi. Roger Lewin\u2019e g\u00f6re beynin geli\u015fimi 30 milyon y\u0131l i\u00e7inde \u201cd\u00f6rt il\u00e2 be\u015f kat artm\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ve en b\u00fcy\u00fck art\u0131\u015flar, ungulatlar (toynakl\u0131 memeliler), etoburlar ve primatlar\u0131n evrimiyle \u00e7ak\u0131\u015fmaktayd\u0131.\u201d (New Scientist, 5 Aral\u0131k 1992.)<\/p>\n<p>Maymunlar, insans\u0131 maymunlar ve insanlar evrimle\u015ftik\u00e7e beyin b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc daha da artt\u0131. V\u00fccut b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc dikkate al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda maymunlar\u0131n beyinleri modern memeli ortalamas\u0131n\u0131n iki il\u00e2 \u00fc\u00e7 kat\u0131d\u0131r, ama insan beyni alt\u0131 kat\u0131d\u0131r. Beynin geli\u015fimi s\u00fcrekli tedrici bir geli\u015fme de\u011fil, kesintiler, ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7lar ve s\u0131\u00e7ramalardan olu\u015fan bir geli\u015fme sergilemi\u015ftir. \u201cKal\u0131n f\u0131r\u00e7alarla \u00e7izilmi\u015f bu resim \u00f6nemli ayr\u0131nt\u0131lar\u0131 atl\u0131yorsa da as\u0131l mesaj yeteri kadar nettir;\u201d diyor Roger Lewin, \u201cbeynin tarihi, de\u011fi\u015fim patlamalar\u0131yla kesintiye u\u011frayan uzun durgunluk d\u00f6nemlerinden olu\u015fur.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Beynin g\u00f6reli b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc, beyin hacminin y\u00fczde 70-80\u2019ini olu\u015fturan bir korteks geli\u015ftirerek 3 milyon y\u0131l i\u00e7inde \u2013evrimsel bir s\u0131\u00e7rama\u2013 \u00fc\u00e7 kat\u0131na \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. \u0130ki ayakl\u0131 ilk hominid t\u00fcr\u00fc 10 il\u00e2 7 milyon y\u0131l \u00f6nce evrimle\u015fti. Ne var ki, insans\u0131 maymunlarla ayn\u0131 d\u00fczeyde olan beyinleri g\u00f6rece k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fckt\u00fc. Ard\u0131ndan, yakla\u015f\u0131k 2,6 milyon y\u0131l \u00f6nce Homonun do\u011fu\u015fuyla birlikte h\u0131zl\u0131 bir b\u00fcy\u00fcme ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti. \u201cModern insanlar\u0131n atalar\u0131n\u0131n evriminde bir s\u0131\u00e7rama ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti\u201d diyor Kiel \u00dcniversitesinden jeolog Mark Maslin. \u201cBulunan kan\u0131tlar\u201d diye a\u00e7\u0131kl\u0131yor Lewin, \u201cbeyin b\u00fcy\u00fcmesinin 2,5 milyon y\u0131l kadar \u00f6nce, yani ta\u015f aletlerin ilk ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131yla \u00e7ak\u0131\u015fan bir d\u00f6nemde ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 hissini veriyor.\u201d Engels\u2019in a\u00e7\u0131klad\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi, emekle birlikte beynin b\u00fcy\u00fcmesi ve konu\u015fman\u0131n geli\u015fmesi \u00e7\u0131ka geldi. \u0130lkel hayvan ileti\u015fimi, nitel bir ilerleme olarak dilin yolunu a\u00e7t\u0131. Bu durum ses tellerinin geli\u015fmesine de ba\u011fl\u0131 olmal\u0131yd\u0131. \u0130nsan beyni, yak\u0131n akraba oldu\u011fumuz \u015fempanzenin \u00e7ok \u00f6tesinde soyutlamalar ve genellemeler yapma yetene\u011findedir.<\/p>\n<p>Beynin b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcndeki art\u0131\u015f, sinir \u015febekesinin karma\u015f\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n artmas\u0131n\u0131 ve reorganizasyonunu da beraberinde getirdi. Bundan as\u0131l yararlanan, insans\u0131 maymunlardakinin alt\u0131 kat\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fckte olan korteksin \u00f6n k\u0131sm\u0131, \u00f6ny\u00fcz b\u00f6lgesi olmu\u015ftur. B\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc nedeniyle bu b\u00f6lge, di\u011fer beyin b\u00f6lgelerinden gelen ba\u011flant\u0131lar\u0131n yerini alarak orta beyne daha fazla lif ba\u011flant\u0131s\u0131 kurabilir. \u201cBu durum, dilin evrimi i\u00e7in \u00f6nemli olabilir\u201d diyor Harvard \u00dcniversitesinden Terrence Deacon, \u00f6ny\u00fcz b\u00f6lgesinin insan\u0131n belli konu\u015fma merkezlerine ev sahipli\u011fi yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131na dikkat \u00e7ekerek. Bilincin bu ger\u00e7ekli\u011fi, insanlarda kendinin fark\u0131na var\u0131\u015fta ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncede a\u00e7\u0131\u011fa \u00e7\u0131kar. Steven Rose \u015f\u00f6yle diyor:<\/p>\n<p>Bilincin ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131yla, insanlarla di\u011fer t\u00fcrler aras\u0131ndaki kritik ayr\u0131m\u0131 olu\u015fturan, ileriye do\u011fru nitel bir evrim s\u0131\u00e7ramas\u0131 olmu\u015ftur, b\u00f6ylelikle insanlar \u00e7ok daha fazla \u00e7e\u015fitlenmi\u015f ve di\u011fer organizmalar i\u00e7in m\u00fcmk\u00fcn olandan daha karma\u015f\u0131k etkile\u015fimlere maruz kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bilincin do\u011fu\u015fu insan\u0131n varolu\u015f tarz\u0131n\u0131 nitel olarak de\u011fi\u015ftirmi\u015ftir; bilin\u00e7le birlikte, karma\u015f\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131n yeni bir d\u00fczeni, daha y\u00fcksek bir hiyerar\u015fik \u00f6rg\u00fctlenme d\u00fczeni g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr hale gelir. Ama bilinci statik bir bi\u00e7im olarak de\u011fil de, birey ile \u00e7evresi aras\u0131ndaki etkile\u015fimleri de kapsayan bir s\u00fcre\u00e7 olarak tan\u0131mlad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zdan dolay\u0131, insan ili\u015fkileri insan toplumunun evrimi boyunca d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrken insan bilincinin de nas\u0131l d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc g\u00f6rebiliriz. Kafatas\u0131 kapasitemiz ya da h\u00fccre say\u0131m\u0131z ilk Homo sapiensten pek farkl\u0131 olmayabilir, ama \u00e7evremiz \u2013toplum bi\u00e7imlerimiz\u2013 \u00e7ok farkl\u0131d\u0131r ve bu nedenle bilincimiz de \u00e7ok farkl\u0131d\u0131r; bu ayn\u0131 zamanda beyin durumlar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n da \u00e7ok farkl\u0131 oldu\u011fu anlam\u0131na gelir.[6]<\/p>\n<p><em>Konu\u015fman\u0131n \u00d6nemi<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Konu\u015fman\u0131n \u2013zellikle \u201ci\u00e7 konu\u015fma\u201dn\u0131n geli\u015fimi\u2013 beynimizin geli\u015fimi \u00fczerindeki etkisi belirleyici \u00f6nemdedir. Bu yeni bir d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce de\u011fildir, antik Yunanl\u0131lar ve 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l filozoflar\u0131, \u00f6zellikle de Thomas Hobbes, bunu biliyorlard\u0131. \u0130nsan\u0131n T\u00fcreyi\u015fi adl\u0131 kitab\u0131nda Charles Darwin \u015f\u00f6yle a\u00e7\u0131kl\u0131yordu: \u201c\u0130ster seslendirilmi\u015f ister sessiz olsun, \u00e7e\u015fitli s\u00f6zc\u00fcklerin yard\u0131m\u0131 olmaks\u0131z\u0131n karma\u015f\u0131k ve uzun bir d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceler silsilesini ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilebilmek, cebirsel say\u0131lar olmaks\u0131z\u0131n uzun bir hesaplaman\u0131n yap\u0131lmas\u0131ndan daha m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fildir.\u201d 1930\u2019larda Sovyet psikologu Lev Vigotski t\u00fcm psikolojiyi bu temelde yeniden in\u015fa etmeye giri\u015fti.<\/p>\n<p>Vigotski \u00e7e\u015fitli \u00e7ocuk davran\u0131\u015f \u00f6rneklerini kullanarak, \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n kendi kendilerine y\u00fcksek sesle konu\u015fmaya neden bu denli \u00e7ok zaman ay\u0131rd\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klad\u0131. Gelecekte i\u00e7 konu\u015fma olarak i\u00e7selle\u015ftirecekleri planlama al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n provas\u0131n\u0131 yapmaktayd\u0131lar. Vigotski bu i\u00e7 konu\u015fman\u0131n, insan\u0131n an\u0131lar\u0131 yeniden derleme ve hat\u0131rlama yetene\u011finin temelini olu\u015fturdu\u011funu g\u00f6sterdi. Genellemeler yapma ve perspektif sunma yetene\u011findeki insan akl\u0131, alg\u0131lar\u0131m\u0131zla uyar\u0131lan bir i\u00e7 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceler d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131n hakimiyeti alt\u0131ndad\u0131r. Hayvanlar\u0131n da belle\u011fi vard\u0131r, ama onlar yak\u0131n \u00e7evresini yans\u0131tan bir bi\u00e7imde o ana kilitlenmi\u015f gibidirler. \u0130nsan i\u00e7 konu\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131n geli\u015fimi, insanlar\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce \u00fcretmesini ve bu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceleri hat\u0131rlamas\u0131n\u0131 m\u00fcmk\u00fcn k\u0131lar. Ba\u015fka bir deyi\u015fle, i\u00e7 konu\u015fma insan akl\u0131n\u0131n evriminde kilit bir rol oynam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n<p>Her ne kadar erken \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc, Vigotski\u2019nin \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131 kesintiye u\u011fratt\u0131ysa da, antropoloji, sosyoloji, dil bilimi ve e\u011fitim psikolojisinin \u00f6nemli katk\u0131lar\u0131yla fikirleri ele al\u0131n\u0131p incelenmi\u015f ve geni\u015fletilmi\u015ftir. Ge\u00e7mi\u015fte, bellek, k\u0131sa ve uzun d\u00f6nemli belle\u011fi i\u00e7eren \u00fcniter bir biyolojik sistem olarak inceleniyordu. Bellek, n\u00f6rofizyolojik, biyokimyasal ve anatomik olarak incelenebiliyordu. Ama bug\u00fcn, di\u011fer bilimleri de i\u00e7eren daha diyalektik bir yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n \u00f6n\u00fc a\u00e7\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Rose \u015funlar\u0131 s\u00f6yl\u00fcyor:<\/p>\n<p>Bu indirgemeci yakla\u015f\u0131mdan, organizmay\u0131 inceleyen bilimlere d\u00fc\u015fen g\u00f6revin, bireyin davran\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131, belirli molek\u00fcler d\u00fczenleni\u015flere indirgemek oldu\u011fu sonucu \u00e7\u0131kmaktad\u0131r; beri yanda organizma pop\u00fclasyonlar\u0131n\u0131n incelenmesi de, kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 ya da bencil \u00f6zgecili\u011fi kodlayan DNA ipliklerinin ara\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 d\u00fczeyine d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcr\u00fclmektedir. Son on y\u0131lda, bu yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n paradigmas\u0131n\u0131, \u00f6\u011frenmeden kaynaklanan ve belirli an\u0131lar\u0131 \u201ckodlayan\u201d RNA\u2019n\u0131n, proteinlerin ya da peptid molek\u00fcllerinin yal\u0131t\u0131lmas\u0131 \u00e7abalar\u0131; ya da molek\u00fcler biyologun, bir dizi elektron mikroskobu kesitiyle haritas\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kart\u0131labilecek ve bu harita i\u00e7erisinde farkl\u0131 davran\u0131\u015fsal mutasyonlarla ili\u015fkili farkl\u0131 ba\u011flant\u0131 diyagramlar\u0131n\u0131n tan\u0131mlanabilece\u011fi \u201cbasit\u201d bir sinir sistemine sahip bir organizma aray\u0131\u015f\u0131 olu\u015fturmu\u015ftur.[7]<\/p>\n<p><em>Ve \u015fu sonuca var\u0131yor:<\/em><\/p>\n<p>Bu t\u00fcr bir indirgemecili\u011fin i\u00e7ine s\u00fcr\u00fcklendi\u011fi paradokslar, sistem modelleyicilerininkinden muhtemelen daha beterdir. Bu paradokslar \u015f\u00fcphesiz Descartes\u2019tan beri \u00e7ok bariz bi\u00e7imde ortadayd\u0131lar. Descartes\u2019\u0131n, organizmay\u0131, hidrolikle \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan hayvani bir makineye indirgeyi\u015fini, insan s\u00f6z konusu oldu\u011funda, pineal bezinde yer alan \u00f6zg\u00fcr irade sahibi bir ruhla uzla\u015ft\u0131rmak zorunda kal\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Nitekim daha sonralar\u0131, ki bug\u00fcn de \u00f6yledir, mekanik indirgemecilik, i\u015fe yaramaz bir hale gelmeden \u00f6nce, halis bir idealizme s\u00fcr\u00fcklendi.<\/p>\n<p>Beynin evriminde baz\u0131 k\u0131s\u0131mlar tamamen bir kenara at\u0131ld\u0131. Yeni yap\u0131lar geli\u015firken, eskiler \u00f6nem ve hacim bak\u0131m\u0131ndan k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fcld\u00fcler. Beynin geli\u015fimiyle birlikte \u00f6\u011frenme kapasitesi de artar. Eskiden insans\u0131 maymunun insana d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn beynin geli\u015fimiyle ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 varsay\u0131lmaktayd\u0131. Bir insans\u0131 maymunun beyni (hacimce) 400 il\u00e2 600 santimetrek\u00fcp aras\u0131ndad\u0131r, insan beyni ise 1200 il\u00e2 1500 santimetrek\u00fcp. \u201cKay\u0131p halka\u201dn\u0131n, esasen insans\u0131 maymun benzeri, ama daha b\u00fcy\u00fck beyinli oldu\u011funa inan\u0131l\u0131yordu. Yine ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde, b\u00fcy\u00fck bir beynin dik duru\u015fu da \u00f6nceledi\u011fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmekteydi.<\/p>\n<p>Engels bu ilk beyin teorisine, yanl\u0131\u015f idealist tarih g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcn bir uzant\u0131s\u0131 olarak kararl\u0131 bir bi\u00e7imde kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. Y\u00fcr\u00fcy\u00fc\u015fteki dik duru\u015f insans\u0131 maymundan insana ge\u00e7i\u015fte tayin edici ad\u0131md\u0131. Ellerini \u00f6zg\u00fcr b\u0131rakan \u015fey tam da iki ayakl\u0131 do\u011falar\u0131yd\u0131; sonradan beynin b\u00fcy\u00fcmesine yol a\u00e7an \u015fey de bu duru\u015f bi\u00e7imidir. \u201c\u00d6nce emek gelir\u201d diyor Engels, \u201card\u0131ndan onunla birlikte net konu\u015fma; bunlar, insans\u0131 maymunun beyninin, insan beynine tedricen d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fmesine neden olan en temel iki uyar\u0131c\u0131d\u0131r.\u201d[8] Daha sonralar\u0131 ke\u015ffedilen fosille\u015fmi\u015f kal\u0131nt\u0131lar Engels\u2019in g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc do\u011frulam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u201cBu do\u011frulama her t\u00fcrl\u00fc bilimsel \u015f\u00fcphenin \u00f6tesinde tamd\u0131. Afrika\u2019da g\u00fcn \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131na \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lan yarat\u0131klar insans\u0131 maymunlar\u0131nkinden daha b\u00fcy\u00fck olmayan beyinlere sahiplerdi. Bunlar insanlar gibi y\u00fcr\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f ve ko\u015fmu\u015flard\u0131. Ayak modern insan\u0131nkinden \u00e7ok az farkl\u0131yd\u0131 ve el insandaki \u015fekline do\u011fru yar\u0131 yoldayd\u0131.\u201d[9]<\/p>\n<p>\u0130nsanlar\u0131n k\u00f6kenleri konusunda Engels\u2019in g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerini destekleyen kan\u0131tlar\u0131n giderek art\u0131yor olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen, \u00f6nce beynin geli\u015fti\u011fi anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 h\u00e2l\u00e2 canl\u0131d\u0131r ve ortal\u0131kta dola\u015fmaktad\u0131r. Son zamanlarda \u00e7\u0131kan, Ka\u00e7ak Beyin, \u0130nsan E\u015fsizli\u011finin Evrimi adl\u0131 bir kitapta yazar Christopher Wills \u015f\u00f6yle diyor: \u201cBiliyoruz ki atalar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n beyinleri b\u00fcy\u00fcd\u00fck\u00e7e ayn\u0131 zamanda duru\u015flar\u0131 daha dikle\u015fiyor, ince hassas becerileri geli\u015fiyor ve \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131klar\u0131 sesler konu\u015fmaya do\u011fru derece derece ilerliyordu.\u201d[10]<\/p>\n<p>\u0130nsan, \u00e7evresi ve kendisi hakk\u0131nda giderek daha fazla bilin\u00e7lenir. Di\u011fer hayvanlar\u0131n aksine insanlar kendi deneyimlerini genelleyebilirler. Hayvanlar \u00e7evrelerinin hakimiyeti alt\u0131nda iken, insanlar \u00e7evrelerini kendi ihtiya\u00e7lar\u0131na uydurmak i\u00e7in de\u011fi\u015ftirirler. Bilim, Engels\u2019in \u015fu ifadesini do\u011frulam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u201cBilincimiz ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncemiz, ne kadar duyu\u00fcst\u00fc g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcrse g\u00f6r\u00fcns\u00fcn, maddi, bedensel bir organ\u0131n, beynin \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcd\u00fcrler. Madde akl\u0131n bir \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc de\u011fildir, tersine akl\u0131n kendisi yaln\u0131zca maddenin en y\u00fcksek \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcd\u00fcr. Bu, elbette, saf materyalizmdir.\u201d[11] Beyin geli\u015ftik\u00e7e \u00f6\u011frenme ve genelleme kapasitesi de geli\u015fir. \u00d6nemli bilgiler beyinde, muhtemelen sistemin bir\u00e7ok farkl\u0131 b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnde depolan\u0131r. Bu bilgiler, beyindeki molek\u00fcller yenilendi\u011finde silinmezler. On d\u00f6rt g\u00fcn i\u00e7inde beyin proteinlerinin %90\u2019\u0131 par\u00e7alan\u0131r ve \u00f6zde\u015f molek\u00fcllerle yenilenirler. Beynin evrimini durdurdu\u011funu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmek i\u00e7in de bir neden yoktur. Onun kapasitesi sonsuz kalmaktad\u0131r. S\u0131n\u0131fs\u0131z toplumun geli\u015fimi, insano\u011flunun kavray\u0131\u015f\u0131nda da ileri do\u011fru yeni bir s\u0131\u00e7ramaya tan\u0131k olacakt\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin, genetik m\u00fchendisli\u011finin ba\u015far\u0131lar\u0131 hen\u00fcz bebeklik evresindedir. Bilim muazzam olanaklar ve meydan okuyu\u015flar\u0131n \u00f6n\u00fcn\u00fc a\u00e7\u0131yor. Beyin ve insan zek\u00e2s\u0131 gelecekteki bu meydan okumalar\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131layacak \u015fekilde evrimle\u015fecektir. Ama geli\u015fmenin sonu gelmeyen spiralinde, her problem \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcl\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnde \u00e7ok daha fazla sorun ortaya \u00e7\u0131kacakt\u0131r.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Beyin Bulmacas\u0131 \u201cOrganik do\u011fa \u00f6l\u00fc do\u011fadan \u00e7\u0131k\u0131p geli\u015fti; canl\u0131 do\u011fa d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeye yetenekli bir form \u00fcretti. \u00d6nce d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme yetene\u011finde olmayan madde vard\u0131; ondan, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnen madde, yani insan \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. E\u011fer durum buysa \u2013ve do\u011fa bilimlerinden biliyoruz ki \u00f6yledir\u2013 akl\u0131n maddenin anas\u0131 olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131, maddenin akl\u0131n anas\u0131 oldu\u011fu a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131r. \u00c7ocuklar asla ebeveynlerden daha ya\u015fl\u0131 olamazlar. \u00abAk\u0131l\u00bb sonra gelir, ve [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[48],"tags":[],"class_list":{"0":"post-1384","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","6":"category-evrim"},"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v24.9 (Yoast SEO v24.9) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>Akl\u0131n Do\u011fu\u015fu (1.B\u00f6l\u00fcm) | Alan Woods - Ted Grant - narteks.net<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/11\/11\/aklin-dogusu-1bolum-alan-woods-ted-grant\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"tr_TR\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Akl\u0131n Do\u011fu\u015fu (1.B\u00f6l\u00fcm) | Alan Woods - Ted Grant\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Beyin Bulmacas\u0131 \u201cOrganik do\u011fa \u00f6l\u00fc do\u011fadan \u00e7\u0131k\u0131p geli\u015fti; canl\u0131 do\u011fa d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeye yetenekli bir form \u00fcretti. \u00d6nce d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme yetene\u011finde olmayan madde vard\u0131; ondan, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnen madde, yani insan \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. 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canl\u0131 do\u011fa d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeye yetenekli bir form \u00fcretti. \u00d6nce d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme yetene\u011finde olmayan madde vard\u0131; ondan, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnen madde, yani insan \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. E\u011fer durum buysa \u2013ve do\u011fa bilimlerinden biliyoruz ki \u00f6yledir\u2013 akl\u0131n maddenin anas\u0131 olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131, maddenin akl\u0131n anas\u0131 oldu\u011fu a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131r. \u00c7ocuklar asla ebeveynlerden daha ya\u015fl\u0131 olamazlar. \u00abAk\u0131l\u00bb sonra gelir, ve [&hellip;]","og_url":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/11\/11\/aklin-dogusu-1bolum-alan-woods-ted-grant\/","og_site_name":"narteks.net","article_published_time":"2009-11-11T00:31:09+00:00","article_modified_time":"2024-04-28T17:52:29+00:00","og_image":[{"url":"http:\/\/narteks.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/Ted_Grant-150x150.jpg","type":"","width":"","height":""}],"author":"Tar\u0131k","twitter_card":"summary_large_image","twitter_creator":"@narteks","twitter_site":"@narteks","twitter_misc":{"Yazan:":"Tar\u0131k","Tahmini okuma s\u00fcresi":"28 dakika"},"schema":{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@graph":[{"@type":"Article","@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/11\/11\/aklin-dogusu-1bolum-alan-woods-ted-grant\/#article","isPartOf":{"@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/11\/11\/aklin-dogusu-1bolum-alan-woods-ted-grant\/"},"author":{"name":"Tar\u0131k","@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#\/schema\/person\/61f37d9834294b72d31d274e7ed79bca"},"headline":"Akl\u0131n Do\u011fu\u015fu (1.B\u00f6l\u00fcm) | Alan Woods &#8211; 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