![](\"images\/stories\/karl_marx.jpg\")
<\/p>\n<\/p>\n
ULUSLARARASI \u0130\u015e\u00c7\u0130 B\u0130RL\u0130\u011e\u0130N\u0130N KURULU\u015e \u00c7A\u011eRISI<\/p>\n
LONDRA, LONG ACRE’DA ST. MART\u0130N’S HALL’DA YAPILAN A\u00c7IK TOPLANTIDA, 28 EYL\u00dcL 1864’TE KURULMU\u015eTUR[1]<\/p>\n
\u0130\u015f\u00e7iler! 1848’den 1864’e kadar olan d\u00f6nem boyunca i\u015f\u00e7i y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n sefaletinin azalmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ger\u00e7ektir, ama bu d\u00f6nem s\u0131nai geli\u015fme ve ticari b\u00fcy\u00fcme bak\u0131m\u0131ndan gene de e\u015fsizdir. 1850’de \u0130ngiliz orta s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n en \u0131l\u0131ml\u0131 ve en iyi haber organlar\u0131ndan biri, \u015f\u00f6yle bir kehanette bulunuyordu: \u0130ngiltere’nin ihracat ve ithalat\u0131 %50 artacak olursa, \u0130ngiltere’deki sadakaya muhta\u00e7l\u0131k s\u0131f\u0131ra d\u00fc\u015fer. Ama heyhat! 7 Nisan 1864’te, maliye bakan\u0131[1*] \u0130ngiltere’nin toplam ithalat ve ihracat\u0131n\u0131n 1863’te “443.955.000 sterline, nispeten yak\u0131n olan 1843 d\u00f6nemindeki ticaretin yakla\u015f\u0131k \u00fc\u00e7 kat\u0131 olan bu tutara!” ula\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6yleyerek parlamentodaki dinleyicilerini sevince bo\u011fdu. B\u00fct\u00fcn bunlara kar\u015f\u0131n, “yoksulluk” konusunda s\u00f6yledikleri \u00e7ok dokunakl\u0131yd\u0131. “Sefalet i\u00e7inde (sayfa 11)[2] belli bir d\u00fczeye ula\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, Lordlar Kamaras\u0131 s\u00fcrg\u00fcn ve k\u00fcrek cezalar\u0131 konusunda bir soru\u015fturma yap\u0131lmas\u0131na ve bu konuda bir raporun yay\u0131nlanmas\u0131na karar verdi. Bunun sonucu olarak 1863 tarihli o kal\u0131n Mavi Kitaptaki[3] cinayet \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131 ortaya ve, b\u00f6ylece de, mahkum olmu\u015f su\u00e7lulardan, \u0130ngiltere’nin ve \u0130sko\u00e7ya’n\u0131n k\u00fcrek serflerinden en k\u00f6t\u00fclerinin bile, \u0130ngiltere’nin ve \u0130sko\u00e7ya’n\u0131n tar\u0131m emek\u00e7ilerinden \u00e7ok daha az ezildikleri ve \u00e7ok daha iyi durumda bulunduklar\u0131, resmi olgularla ve rakamlarla tan\u0131tland\u0131. Ama hepsi bu de\u011fildi. Amerikan \u0130\u00e7 Sava\u015f\u0131[4] y\u00fcz\u00fcnden Lancashire ve Cheshire’daki fabrika i\u015f\u00e7ileri kendilerini sokakta bulduklar\u0131nda, ayn\u0131 Lordlar Kamaras\u0131, “a\u00e7l\u0131ktan ileri gelen hastal\u0131klar\u0131 \u00f6nleme”ye ucu ucuna yetecek ve en ucuz ve en basit bi\u00e7imde verilebilecek en d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck karbon ve nitrojen miktar\u0131n\u0131n ne olabilece\u011fini ara\u015ft\u0131rmakla g\u00f6revli bir doktoru, sanayi b\u00f6lgelerine g\u00f6nderdi. T\u0131p temsilcisi Dr. Smith, 28.000 \u00fcnite karbonun ve 1.330 \u00fcnite nitrojenin, ortalama bir yeti\u015fkini a\u00e7l\u0131ktan ileri gelen hastal\u0131k d\u00fczeyinin hemen \u00fcst\u00fcnde tutacak haftal\u0131k miktarlar oldu\u011funu, ve ayr\u0131ca bu miktarlar\u0131n, a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 yorgunluk bask\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n pamuklu dokuma i\u015f\u00e7ilerini fiilen i\u00e7ine d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015f oldu\u011fu yetersiz beslenmeye pek yak\u0131n bir d\u00fczeyde oldu\u011funu ortaya koydu.[2*] Ama dikkat edin! Bu \u00e7ok bilmi\u015f doktor, daha sonra, \u00d6zel Meclisin t\u0131p yetkilisi taraf\u0131ndan, tekrar, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n yoksul kesimlerinin beslenme durumunu ara\u015ft\u0131rmakla (sayfa 12)
“Dahas\u0131” diye yaz\u0131yordu raporda, “incelenen ailelerden tar\u0131m kesimine dahil olanlara gelince, bunlardan be\u015fte-birinin, yeterli olaca\u011f\u0131 tahmin edilen karbonlu g\u0131dadan daha az\u0131n\u0131; \u00fc\u00e7te-birinin, yeterli olaca\u011f\u0131 tahmin edilen nitrojenli g\u0131dadan daha az\u0131n\u0131 ald\u0131klar\u0131; ve \u00fc\u00e7 kontlukta (Berkshire, Oxfordshire ve Somersetshire) g\u00fcnl\u00fck ortalama yerel besin i\u00e7ersinde, nitrojenli g\u0131dalar\u0131n yetersiz kald\u0131klar\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc.” “\u015euras\u0131 unutulmamal\u0131 ki”, diye ekliyor resmi rapor, “g\u0131da yoksunlu\u011fu hi\u00e7 istenilmeyen bir durumdur ve, bir kural olarak, b\u00fcy\u00fck g\u00fcnl\u00fck besin yetersizli\u011fi ancak \u00f6teki yoksunluklar\u0131n ard\u0131ndan gelen bir \u015feydir. … Bu durumda, temizli\u011fin bile, pahal\u0131 ya da zahmetli oldu\u011fu g\u00f6r\u00fclecektir, ve temizli\u011fi koruma yolunda \u00f6zsayg\u0131l\u0131 \u00e7abalar h\u00e2l\u00e2 varsa, bu y\u00f6nde harcanan her \u00e7aba yeni a\u00e7l\u0131k sanc\u0131lar\u0131 getirecektir.” “Bunlar ac\u0131 veren d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerdir, \u00f6zellikle bu kimselerin i\u00e7inde bulunduklar\u0131 yoksullu\u011fun aylakl\u0131ktan ileri gelen hakl\u0131 yoksulluk olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 an\u0131msanacak olursa; bu, b\u00fct\u00fcn durumlarda, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan halk\u0131n yoksullu\u011fudur. Ger\u00e7ekten de, ac\u0131nacak miktarlarda g\u0131da elde etmek i\u00e7in yap\u0131lan \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma, \u00e7o\u011funlukla, a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde uzundur.”
Bu rapor, garip ve olduk\u00e7a beklenmedik bir olguyu, “Birle\u015fik Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n d\u00f6rt b\u00f6lgesi i\u00e7inde” -\u0130ngiltere, Galler, \u0130sko\u00e7ya ve \u0130rlanda-, “\u0130ngiltere’nin tar\u0131msal n\u00fcfusunun”, Birle\u015fik Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n bu en zengin b\u00f6lgesinin, “hemen hemen en k\u00f6t\u00fc besleneni oldu\u011funu”; ama Berkshire’\u0131n, Oxfordshire’\u0131n ve Somersetshire’\u0131n tar\u0131m emek\u00e7ilerinin bile, Do\u011fu Londra’da kapal\u0131 yerlerde \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan \u00e7ok say\u0131daki el i\u015f\u00e7isinden daha iyi durumda olduklar\u0131n\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131karm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.
Serbest ticaret \u00e7a\u011f\u0131nda, maliye bakan\u0131n\u0131n, Avam Kamaras\u0131na, “\u0130ngiliz i\u015f\u00e7isinin ortalama durumu, ola\u011fan\u00fcst\u00fc (sayfa 13) \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde ve herhangi bir \u00fclkenin ya da \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n tarihinde bir benzeri bulunmayan \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde iyile\u015fmi\u015ftir” dedi\u011fi s\u0131ra, parlamentonun buyru\u011fu ile 1864’te yay\u0131nlanm\u0131\u015f olan resmi veriler bunlard\u0131.
Bu resmi kutlama sesleri aras\u0131na, resmi Kamu Sa\u011fl\u0131\u011f\u0131 Raporunun \u015fu tats\u0131z s\u00f6zleri kar\u0131\u015f\u0131yor:
“Bir \u00fclkenin kamu sa\u011fl\u0131\u011f\u0131 demek, o \u00fclkedeki y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n sa\u011fl\u0131\u011f\u0131 demektir, ve y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar, en alt katlar\u0131na dek asgari bir refah d\u00fczeyinde olmad\u0131k\u00e7a nas\u0131l sa\u011fl\u0131kl\u0131 olabilirler?”
“Ulusal \u0130lerleme” istatistiklerinin g\u00f6zleri \u00f6n\u00fcnde dansetmesinden ba\u015f\u0131 d\u00f6nen maliye bakan\u0131, vah\u015fi bir vecd i\u00e7inde \u015f\u00f6yle hayk\u0131r\u0131yor:
“1842’den 1852’ye kadar \u00fclkenin vergilendirilen geliri %6 artt\u0131; 1853’ten 1861’e kadarki sekiz y\u0131l i\u00e7ersinde, 1853 y\u0131l\u0131 esas al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, bu art\u0131\u015f %20’dir! Bu olgu neredeyse inan\u0131lmayacak kadar \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131d\u0131r! … Bu sarho\u015f edici servet ve g\u00fc\u00e7 birikimi” diye, ekliyor Bay Gladstone, “tamam\u0131yla m\u00fclk sahibi s\u0131n\u0131flarla s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r!”
“Tamam\u0131yla m\u00fclk sahibi s\u0131n\u0131flarla s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 kalan bu sarho\u015f edici servet ve g\u00fc\u00e7 birikiminin” emek\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131flar taraf\u0131ndan hangi k\u00f6t\u00fc sa\u011fl\u0131k, y\u0131k\u0131k moral, zihinsel bozukluk ko\u015fullar\u0131 alt\u0131nda \u00fcretilmi\u015f ve \u00fcretilmekte oldu\u011funu bilmek isterseniz, matbaac\u0131lar\u0131n, terzilerin, elbise yap\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n i\u015fyerlerine ili\u015fkin “Kamu Sa\u011fl\u0131\u011f\u0131 Raporu”nda \u00e7izilen tabloya bak\u0131n\u0131z! Bunu 1863 tarihli “\u00c7ocuk \u0130stihdam\u0131 Komisyonu Raporu” ile k\u0131yaslay\u0131n\u0131z. Burada, \u00f6rne\u011fin \u015f\u00f6yle deniliyor:
“Kad\u0131nl\u0131-erkekli \u00e7\u00f6mlek\u00e7iler, bir s\u0131n\u0131f olarak, hem fiziksel ve hem de zihinsel bak\u0131mdan, n\u00fcfusun \u00e7ok daha bozulmu\u015f bir kesimidir”; “sa\u011fl\u0131ks\u0131z \u00e7ocuk, gelece\u011fin sa\u011fl\u0131ks\u0131z yeti\u015fkinidir”; “\u0131rk\u0131n gittik\u00e7e bozulmas\u0131 ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmazd\u0131r” ve “kom\u015fu b\u00f6lgelerden durmadan yeni gelenler ve daha sa\u011fl\u0131kl\u0131 \u0131rklarla evlenmeler olmasayd\u0131, Staffordshire n\u00fcfusundaki bozulma (degenerescence) daha da b\u00fcy\u00fck olurdu.”
Bay Tremenheere’\u0131n “F\u0131r\u0131nc\u0131 Kalfalar\u0131n\u0131n Yak\u0131nd\u0131klar\u0131 G\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fckler” konusundaki Mavi Kitab\u0131na bir g\u00f6zat\u0131n! Lancashire fabrika i\u015f\u00e7ilerinin beslenme durumlar\u0131 a\u00e7l\u0131k d\u00fczeyinin hi\u00e7 de \u00fcst\u00fcnde de\u011filken, sa\u011fl\u0131k durumlar\u0131n\u0131n asl\u0131nda d\u00fczelmekte oldu\u011fu, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc, pamuk k\u0131tl\u0131\u011f\u0131 y\u00fcz\u00fcnden, (sayfa 14) bunlar\u0131n pamuklu dokuma fabrikalar\u0131ndan ge\u00e7ici olarak \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131ld\u0131klar\u0131; ve \u00e7ocuk \u00f6l\u00fcmlerinin azalmakta oldu\u011fu, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc annelerinin \u015fimdi, nihayet, onlara afyon kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131 yerine kendi memelerini verebildikleri yolundaki fabrika m\u00fcfetti\u015fleri taraf\u0131ndan s\u00f6ylenmi\u015f ve Genel Kay\u0131t Memuru taraf\u0131ndan haz\u0131rlanan tablolarda g\u00f6sterilen ak\u0131l almaz s\u00f6zler kimin t\u00fcylerini diken diken etmemi\u015ftir ki?
Gene madalyonun \u00f6teki y\u00fcz\u00fcn\u00fc \u00e7evirelim! 20 Temmuz 1864’te Avam Kamaras\u0131na sunulan Gelir ve M\u00fclkiyet Vergisi Has\u0131lat\u0131na g\u00f6re, y\u0131ll\u0131k gelirleri vergi memurlar\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan 50.000 sterlin ve daha fazla olarak bildirilen ki\u015filerin aras\u0131na 5 Nisan 1862’den 5 Nisan 1863’e kadar on\u00fc\u00e7 ki\u015finin daha kat\u0131lmas\u0131yla, bunlar\u0131n say\u0131s\u0131, o tek y\u0131l i\u00e7erisinde, 67’den 80’e \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu ayn\u0131 gelirler listesi, \u0130ngiltere’nin ve Galler’in toplam tar\u0131m emek\u00e7ileri y\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n\u0131n bir y\u0131lda paylar\u0131na d\u00fc\u015fenden daha fazla olan 25.000.000 sterlinlik y\u0131ll\u0131k gelirin 3.000 ki\u015fi aras\u0131nda b\u00f6l\u00fc\u015f\u00fclmekte oldu\u011fu ger\u00e7e\u011fini a\u00e7\u0131\u011fa \u00e7\u0131karmaktad\u0131r. 1861 say\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131n\u0131z, \u0130ngiltere’nin ve Galler’in 1851’de 16.934 olan erkek toprak sahipleri say\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n 1861’de 15.066’ya d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc, b\u00f6ylelikle toprak yo\u011funla\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131n 10 y\u0131lda %11 artm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011funu g\u00f6receksiniz. \u00dclke topraklar\u0131n\u0131n birka\u00e7 elde toplanmas\u0131 bu h\u0131zda s\u00fcrecek olursa, Roma \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu’nun Afrika eyaletinin yar\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n alt\u0131 beyin elinde oldu\u011funu \u00f6\u011frendi\u011finde Neron’un keyifle s\u0131r\u0131tmas\u0131 gibi, toprak sorunu fevkalade basitle\u015fecektir.
“Neredeyse inan\u0131lmayacak kadar \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131” olan bu olgular \u00fczerinde uzun uzun durduk, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc ticaret ve sanayi Avrupas\u0131’n\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 \u0130ngiltere \u00e7ekiyor. Bundan birka\u00e7 ay \u00f6nce Louis-Philippe’in m\u00fclteci o\u011fullar\u0131ndan birinin, Kanal\u0131n \u00f6te yan\u0131ndaki daha az serpilmi\u015f yolda\u015flar\u0131ndan daha iyi durumda oldu\u011fu i\u00e7in \u0130ngiliz tar\u0131m emek\u00e7isini resmen kutlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 an\u0131msanacakt\u0131r. Ger\u00e7ekten de, yerel renkler de\u011fi\u015ftirilse ve \u00f6l\u00e7ek olarak da biraz daralt\u0131lsa, \u0130ngiltere’ye \u00f6zg\u00fc olgular, K\u0131tan\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn sanayile\u015fmi\u015f ileri \u00fclkelerinde aynen g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcrler. Bu \u00fclkelerin hepsinde, 1848’den beri, sanayide duyulmam\u0131\u015f bir geli\u015fme, ithalat ve ihracatta da ak\u0131l almaz bir geni\u015fleme olmu\u015ftur. “Tamam\u0131yla m\u00fclk sahibi s\u0131n\u0131flarla s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 kalan servet ve g\u00fc\u00e7 birikimi”, bunlar\u0131n hepsinde ger\u00e7ekten de “sarho\u015f edici” idi. Bu \u00fclkelerin hepsinde (sayfa 15) \u0130ngiltere’de oldu\u011fu gibi, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir az\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ger\u00e7ek \u00fccretleri bir miktar artm\u0131\u015ft\u0131; oysa \u00e7o\u011fu durumda, \u00f6rne\u011fin b\u00fcy\u00fck kentlerdeki yoksullar evinde ya da kimsesizler yurdunda ya\u015fayan bir kimsenin 1852’de 7 sterlin 7 \u015filin 4 peni tutan en ivedi gereksinmelerinin 1861’de 9 sterlin 15 \u015filin 8 peniye[3*] \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131 ona ne kadar yarar sa\u011flad\u0131ysa, \u00fccretlerdeki parasal y\u00fckseli\u015fin t\u00fcketim d\u00fczeyinde sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 ger\u00e7ek art\u0131\u015f da bundan daha \u00e7ok de\u011fildi. Geni\u015f i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131, her yerde, kendisinden yukarda olanlar toplumun merdivenlerini hangi h\u0131zda \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yorlarsa, en az ayn\u0131 h\u0131zda daha da derinlere g\u00f6m\u00fcl\u00fcyorlard\u0131. Makinelerdeki hi\u00e7 bir iyile\u015ftirmenin, \u00fcretime uygulanacak hi\u00e7 bir bilimin, ileti\u015fim ara\u00e7lar\u0131ndaki hi\u00e7 bir iyile\u015ftirmenin, hi\u00e7 bir yeni s\u00f6m\u00fcrgenin, hi\u00e7 bir g\u00f6\u00e7\u00fcn, a\u00e7\u0131lacak hi\u00e7 bir pazar\u0131n, hi\u00e7 bir serbest ticaretin, ne de b\u00fct\u00fcn bunlar\u0131n hepsinin, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n sefaletini kald\u0131rmayaca\u011f\u0131; tersine, bug\u00fcnk\u00fc yanl\u0131\u015f temel \u00fczerinde, eme\u011fin \u00fcretici g\u00fc\u00e7lerindeki her yeni geli\u015fmenin toplumsal kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131klar\u0131 derinle\u015ftirmek ve toplumsal uzla\u015fmaz kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131klar\u0131 keskinle\u015ftirmek e\u011filimi g\u00f6stermesinin ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmazl\u0131\u011f\u0131, Avrupa’n\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn \u00fclkelerinde art\u0131k \u00f6nyarg\u0131s\u0131z her kafaya g\u00f6sterilebilir, ve bu, ancak kendi \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131 ba\u015fkalar\u0131n\u0131n ger\u00e7ek-d\u0131\u015f\u0131 hayallerle oyalanmalar\u0131n\u0131 gerektirenlerce yads\u0131nan bir ger\u00e7ek haline gelmi\u015ftir. \u0130ktisadi geli\u015fmenin bu sarho\u015f edici evresinde, a\u00e7l\u0131ktan ileri gelen \u00f6l\u00fcmler, Britanya \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu’nun b\u00fcy\u00fck kentlerinde neredeyse kurumla\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu evre, d\u00fcnya kay\u0131tlar\u0131nda, ticari ve s\u0131nai bunal\u0131m denen toplumsal ha\u015ferenin daha da s\u0131kla\u015fmas\u0131yla, daha da yayg\u0131nla\u015fmas\u0131yla, daha da \u00f6l\u00fcmc\u00fcl olan etkileriyle belirtilmektedir.
1848 devrimlerinin yenilgiye u\u011framalar\u0131ndan sonra, i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn parti \u00f6rg\u00fctleri ve parti yay\u0131nlar\u0131, K\u0131tada, zorun demir pen\u00e7esi taraf\u0131ndan parampar\u00e7a edildi, eme\u011fin en ileri \u00e7ocuklar\u0131 umutsuzluk i\u00e7erisinde Deniza\u015f\u0131r\u0131 Cumhuriyete ka\u00e7t\u0131, ve k\u0131sa s\u00fcren kurtulu\u015f d\u00fc\u015fleri, bir s\u0131nai canl\u0131l\u0131k, ahlaki \u00e7\u00fcr\u00fcme ve siyasal gericilik d\u00f6nemi kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda yokoldu. K\u0131tadaki \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n, bug\u00fcnk\u00fc gibi o s\u0131ra da St. Petersburg kabinesi ile karde\u015f\u00e7e dayan\u0131\u015fma i\u00e7inde olan (sayfa 16) \u0130ngiliz h\u00fck\u00fcmetinin diplomasisinin k\u0131smen bir sonucu olan yenilgisinin bula\u015f\u0131c\u0131 etkileri, \u00e7ok ge\u00e7meden Kanal\u0131n \u00f6teki yakas\u0131na da s\u0131\u00e7rad\u0131. K\u0131tadaki karde\u015flerinin yenilgisi, \u0130ngiliz i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131 i\u011fdi\u015f eder, onlar\u0131n kendi davlar\u0131na olan inan\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 k\u0131rarken, toprakbeylerinin ve para-beylerinin de bir miktar sars\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olan g\u00fcvenlerini geri getirdi. Daha \u00f6nce vermi\u015f olduklar\u0131 \u00f6d\u00fcnleri k\u00fcstah\u00e7a geri ald\u0131lar. Yeni alt\u0131n diyarlar\u0131n\u0131n ke\u015ffi, \u0130ngiliz proletaryas\u0131n\u0131n saflar\u0131nda doldurulmaz bo\u015fluklar b\u0131rakan b\u00fcy\u00fck bir g\u00f6\u00e7e yola\u00e7t\u0131. Bir zamanlar etkin olan \u00f6teki \u00fcyeleri ise, daha \u00e7ok i\u015f ve \u00fccret bi\u00e7imindeki ge\u00e7ici r\u00fc\u015fvete kap\u0131ld\u0131lar ve “k\u0131sa vadeli hesaplar\u0131n i\u00e7ine girdiler”. \u00c7artist hareketi ayakta tutmak ya da yeniden bi\u00e7imlendirmek y\u00f6n\u00fcndeki b\u00fct\u00fcn \u00e7abalar belirgin bir bi\u00e7imde ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131\u011fa u\u011frad\u0131; i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n yay\u0131n organlar\u0131, y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n ilgisizli\u011fi y\u00fcz\u00fcnden pe\u015fpe\u015fe kapand\u0131lar, ve ger\u00e7ekte, \u0130ngiliz i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n siyasal bir bo\u015fluk durumuyla b\u00f6ylesine tam bir uzla\u015fma i\u00e7ine girdi\u011fi hi\u00e7 g\u00f6r\u00fclmemi\u015fti. \u0130ngiliz i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131yla K\u0131tadaki i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 aras\u0131nda hi\u00e7 bir eylem ortakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 yok idiyse de, hi\u00e7 de\u011filse, bir yenilgi ortakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 vard\u0131.
Ama 1848 devrimlerinden bu yana ge\u00e7en d\u00f6nem, her \u015feye kar\u015f\u0131n, iyi y\u00f6nlerden yoksun de\u011fildi. Biz burada yaln\u0131zca iki b\u00fcy\u00fck olguya i\u015faret edece\u011fiz.
En b\u00fcy\u00fck takdire lay\u0131k bir azimle y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclen otuz y\u0131ll\u0131k bir m\u00fccadeleden sonra, \u0130ngiliz i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131, toprakbeyleri ile para-beyleri aras\u0131nda bir b\u00f6l\u00fcnme yaratarak, On-Saat Tasar\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n[5] yasala\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 ba\u015fard\u0131. Fabrika i\u015f\u00e7ilerinin b\u00f6ylelikle elde ettikleri ve her alt\u0131 ayda bir fabrika m\u00fcfetti\u015flerinin raporlar\u0131na kaydedilen \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck maddi, manevi ve zihinsel kazan\u0131mlar, \u015fimdi b\u00fct\u00fcn taraflarca tan\u0131nmaktad\u0131r. K\u0131ta h\u00fck\u00fcmetlerinin \u00e7o\u011fu, \u0130ngiliz Fabrika Yasas\u0131n\u0131 az\u00e7ok de\u011fi\u015fik bi\u00e7imlerde kabul etmek zorunda kald\u0131lar, ve \u0130ngiliz parlamentosunun kendisi de etki alan\u0131n\u0131 her y\u0131l geni\u015fletmek zorunda kal\u0131yor. Ama bu pratik \u00f6nemi yan\u0131nda, i\u015f\u00e7ilerin yarar\u0131na olan bu \u00f6nlemin ola\u011fan\u00fcst\u00fc ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 y\u00fcceltecek bir ba\u015fka \u015fey daha vard\u0131. Orta s\u0131n\u0131f, Dr. Ure, Profes\u00f6r Senior ve ayn\u0131 soydan ve boydan \u00f6teki bilgeler gibi en \u00fcnl\u00fc bilim organlar\u0131 arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma saatlerine getirilecek herhangi bir yasal s\u0131n\u0131rlaman\u0131n, vampir (sayfa 17) gibi kan, hem de \u00e7ocuk kan\u0131 emmeden ya\u015fayamayan \u0130ngiliz sanayiinin \u00f6l\u00fcm \u00e7anlar\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131nmas\u0131 demek olaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015f ve bunu kendince tan\u0131tlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Eski zamanlarda \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fclmesi Moloch[4*] dinine ait gizemli bir ayindi, ama bu yaln\u0131zca baz\u0131 \u00e7ok kutsal durumlarda, belki de y\u0131lda bir kez yap\u0131l\u0131r ve bundan sonra da Moloch’un yoksullar\u0131n \u00e7ocuklar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 \u00f6zel bir e\u011filimi olmazd\u0131. \u00c7al\u0131\u015fma saatlerinin yasal olarak s\u0131n\u0131rland\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131na ili\u015fkin bu m\u00fccadele daha da amans\u0131zca \u015fiddetlendi, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc a\u00e7g\u00f6zl\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc \u00fcrk\u00fctmesi d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda, bu m\u00fccadele, asl\u0131nda, orta s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n ekonomi politi\u011fini olu\u015fturan arz ve talep yasalar\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6z\u00fc k\u00f6r egemenli\u011fi ile, i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n ekonomi politi\u011fini olu\u015fturan toplumsal \u00f6ng\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcn denetledi\u011fi toplumsal \u00fcretim aras\u0131ndaki b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00e7eki\u015fmeyi etkiliyordu. B\u00f6ylece, On-Saat Yasas\u0131, yaln\u0131zca b\u00fcy\u00fck bir pratik ba\u015far\u0131 olmakla kalm\u0131yordu; bu bir ilkenin zaferiydi; orta s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n ekonomi politi\u011fi, i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n ekonomi politi\u011fine ilk kez b\u00f6ylesine apa\u00e7\u0131k yenik d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcyordu.
Ama m\u00fclkiyetin[5*] ekonomi politi\u011fi kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda, eme\u011fin ekonomi politi\u011finin daha da b\u00fcy\u00fck bir zaferi yedekte bekliyordu. Kooperatif hareketinden, \u00f6zellikle bir avu\u00e7 y\u00fcrekli “elin” yard\u0131m g\u00f6rmeksizin yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131 kooperatif fabrikalardan s\u00f6zediyoruz. Bu b\u00fcy\u00fck toplumsal deneyimlerin de\u011feri abart\u0131lamaz. Bunlar s\u00f6z yerine fiilen g\u00f6stermi\u015flerdir ki, b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00fcretim, modern bilimin gerekleriyle uyum i\u00e7ersinde, bir kol s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131ran bir efendiler s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 olmaks\u0131z\u0131n da y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclebilir; \u00fcr\u00fcn verebilmesi i\u00e7in, i\u015f ara\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan insan\u0131n kendisi \u00fczerinde bir egemenlik ve zorbal\u0131k arac\u0131 olarak tekelle\u015ftirilmesi gerekmez; ve k\u00f6le eme\u011fi ve serf eme\u011fi gibi, \u00fccretli emek de, i\u015fini istekle, zinde bir ruhla ve co\u015fkulu bir y\u00fcrekle yapan birle\u015fik emek kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda yokolmaya mahkum, ge\u00e7ici ve ast bir bi\u00e7imdir. Kooperatif sisteminin tohumlar\u0131, \u0130ngiltere’de, Robert Owen taraf\u0131ndan ekilmi\u015ftir; K\u0131tada uygulanan i\u015f\u00e7i deneyimleri, asl\u0131nda, 1848’in uydurulmu\u015f de\u011fil, y\u00fcksek sesle ilan edilmi\u015f teorilerinin pratik sonu\u00e7lar\u0131yd\u0131. (sayfa 18)
Ayn\u0131 zamanda, 1848’den 1864’e kadar olan d\u00f6nemin deneyimi her t\u00fcrl\u00fc ku\u015fkunun \u00f6tesinde tan\u0131tlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ki, kooperatif emek, ilke olarak ne denli kusursuz, ve pratikte ise ne denli yararl\u0131 olursa olsun, tek tek i\u015f\u00e7ilerin raslansal \u00e7abalar\u0131n\u0131n dar \u00e7er\u00e7evesi i\u00e7inde tutuldu\u011funda, tekelin geometrik b\u00fcy\u00fcme h\u0131z\u0131n\u0131 hi\u00e7 bir zaman yakalayamayacak, y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131 kurtaramayacak, hatta onlar\u0131n sefaletlerinin y\u00fck\u00fcn\u00fc hissedilir bir \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde hafifletemeyecektir. Akl\u0131ba\u015f\u0131nda soylular\u0131n, insansever orta s\u0131n\u0131f gevezelerinin, hatta zeki ekonomi politik\u00e7ilerin, d\u00fc\u015f g\u00f6renlerin \u00fctopyas\u0131 diye alaya alarak, ya da sosyalistin kutsal \u015feye kar\u015f\u0131 sayg\u0131s\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131 diye \u00e7amur atarak, daha filiz halindeyken bo\u015f yere kesip atmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131klar\u0131 kooperatif \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma sistemine birdenbire tiksindirici bir bi\u00e7imde \u00f6vg\u00fcler d\u00fczmeye ba\u015flamalar\u0131n\u0131n nedeni belki de budur. \u00c7al\u0131\u015fan y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131 kurtarmak i\u00e7in, kooperatif \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma ulusal boyutlara ula\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmal\u0131 ve, bunun sonucu olarak da, ulusal ara\u00e7larla geli\u015ftirilmelidir. Ama toprakbeyleri ve sermaye beyleri kendi iktisadi tekellerini savunmak ve devam\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flamak i\u00e7in kendi siyasal ayr\u0131cal\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 her zaman kullanacaklard\u0131r. Eme\u011fin kurtulu\u015funu te\u015fvik etmek bir yana, onun yoluna olas\u0131 her engeli koymay\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcreceklerdir. Lord Palmerston’\u0131n ge\u00e7en oturumda, \u0130rlandal\u0131 Kirac\u0131 \u00c7ift\u00e7ilerin Haklar\u0131 Tasar\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 savunanlarla nas\u0131l alay etti\u011fini an\u0131msay\u0131n\u0131z: “Avam Kamaras\u0131 toprak sahiplerinin meclisidir!”
Siyasal iktidar\u0131n ele ge\u00e7irilmesi, bu y\u00fczden, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fck g\u00f6revi olmu\u015ftur. Bunu kavram\u0131\u015f g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcyorlar, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc \u0130ngiltere’de, Almanya’da, \u0130talya’da ve Fransa’da e\u015fzamanl\u0131 yeni k\u0131p\u0131rdan\u0131\u015flar olmu\u015ftur ve i\u015f\u00e7i partisini siyasal olarak yeniden \u00f6rg\u00fctlemeye y\u00f6nelik e\u015fzamanl\u0131 \u00e7abalara giri\u015filmektedir.
Bir tek ba\u015far\u0131 \u00f6\u011fesine sahipler: say\u0131lan; ama say\u0131, ancak g\u00fc\u00e7birli\u011fi ile birle\u015fti\u011finde ve bilgi ile y\u00f6netildi\u011finde terazinin kefesinde bir a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131k haline gelir. Ge\u00e7mi\u015fin deneyimi, de\u011fi\u015fik \u00fclkelerin i\u015f\u00e7ileri aras\u0131nda bulunmas\u0131 gereken ve kurtulu\u015f i\u00e7in verdikleri b\u00fct\u00fcn m\u00fccadelelerinde onlar\u0131 s\u0131k\u0131 s\u0131k\u0131ya birarada durmaya te\u015fvik eden bu karde\u015flik ba\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6rmezden gelmenin, onlar\u0131n uyumsuz \u00e7abalar\u0131n\u0131n ortak bozgunu ile nas\u0131l cezaland\u0131r\u0131laca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6stermi\u015ftir. Bu (sayfa 19)
Bu toplant\u0131y\u0131 bir ba\u015fka inan\u00e7 daha etkilemi\u015ftir. \u00c7al\u0131\u015fan s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n kurtulu\u015fu, bunlar\u0131n karde\u015f\u00e7e uyum i\u00e7inde bulunmalar\u0131n\u0131 gerektiriyorsa, ulusal \u00f6nyarg\u0131lar\u0131 harekete ge\u00e7iren ve halklar\u0131n kanlar\u0131n\u0131 ve varl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 korsanca sava\u015flarda \u00e7ar\u00e7ur eden, canice ama\u00e7lar g\u00fcden bir d\u0131\u015f politika alt\u0131nda bu b\u00fcy\u00fck g\u00f6revi nas\u0131l yerine getireceklerdir? Bat\u0131 Avrupa’y\u0131 Atlanti\u011fin \u00f6te yakas\u0131ndaki k\u00f6leli\u011fi s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmek ve yayg\u0131nla\u015ft\u0131rmak \u00fczere rezil bir ha\u00e7l\u0131 seferine pald\u0131r-k\u00fcld\u00fcr girmekten koruyan egemen s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n dirayetleri de\u011fil, \u0130ngiltere’nin \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n\u0131n bu canice \u00e7\u0131lg\u0131nl\u0131\u011fa kar\u015f\u0131 yi\u011fit\u00e7e direnmeleri olmu\u015ftur. Avrupa’n\u0131n \u00fcst s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n\u0131n, Kafkaslar’daki da\u011f kalelerinin Rusya’ya yem olu\u015funu, ve yi\u011fit Polonya’n\u0131n Rusya taraf\u0131ndan katledili\u015fini utanmazca onaylay\u0131\u015flar\u0131, alayc\u0131 sempatiyle ya da aptalca bir kay\u0131ts\u0131zl\u0131kla kar\u015f\u0131lamalar\u0131; ba\u015f\u0131 St. Petersburg’da olan ve Avrupa’n\u0131n her kabinesinde parma\u011f\u0131 olan bu barbar g\u00fcc\u00fcn muazzam ve kar\u015f\u0131 konulmayan sald\u0131r\u0131lar\u0131, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan s\u0131n\u0131flara, uluslararas\u0131 politikan\u0131n gizlerini belgeleme, kendi h\u00fck\u00fcmetlerinin diplomatik manevralar\u0131na g\u00f6zkulak olma, bunlara gerekti\u011finde b\u00fct\u00fcn g\u00fc\u00e7leriyle kar\u015f\u0131 koyma, \u00f6nleyemediklerinde ise ayn\u0131 anda su\u00e7lamalara giri\u015fmekte birle\u015fme, ve uluslararas\u0131 ili\u015fkilere egemen olan kurallar kadar, tek tek ki\u015filer aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fkilere de egemen olmas\u0131 gereken basit ahlak ve adalet yasalar\u0131n\u0131 savunma g\u00f6revini \u00f6\u011fretmi\u015ftir.
B\u00f6ylesi bir d\u0131\u015f politika i\u00e7in sava\u015fmak, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n kurtulu\u015fu i\u00e7in verilen genel m\u00fccadelenin bir par\u00e7as\u0131d\u0131r.
B\u00fct\u00fcn \u00fclkelerin proleterleri, birle\u015finiz! (sayfa 20)<\/p>\n
21-27 Ekim 1864 tarihlerinde Marx taraf\u0131ndan yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r<\/p>\n
Kas\u0131m 1864’te Londra’da bas\u0131lan Adress and Provisional Rules of, the Working Men’s International Association Established September 28, 1864 at a Public Meeting Held at St. Martin’s Hall, Long Acre London adl\u0131 kitap\u00e7\u0131kta yay\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r<\/p>\n
Dipnotlar<\/strong><\/p>\n [1*] William Gladstone. -Ed. ULUSLARARASI \u0130\u015e\u00c7\u0130 B\u0130RL\u0130\u011e\u0130N\u0130N KURULU\u015e \u00c7A\u011eRISI LONDRA, LONG ACRE’DA ST. MART\u0130N’S HALL’DA YAPILAN A\u00c7IK TOPLANTIDA, 28 EYL\u00dcL 1864’TE KURULMU\u015eTUR[1] \u0130\u015f\u00e7iler! 1848’den 1864’e kadar olan d\u00f6nem boyunca i\u015f\u00e7i y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n sefaletinin azalmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ger\u00e7ektir, ama bu d\u00f6nem s\u0131nai geli\u015fme ve ticari b\u00fcy\u00fcme bak\u0131m\u0131ndan gene de e\u015fsizdir. 1850’de \u0130ngiliz orta s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n en \u0131l\u0131ml\u0131 ve en iyi haber organlar\u0131ndan […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[33],"tags":[],"class_list":{"0":"post-260","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","6":"category-karl-marx-friedrich-engels-arsivi"},"yoast_head":"\n
[2*] Okura an\u0131msatmam\u0131za hi\u00e7 gerek yok ki, su ve belirli inorganik madde \u00f6\u011feleri d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda, karbon ve nitrojen, insan g\u0131das\u0131n\u0131n hammaddelerini olu\u015ftururlar. Ama insan organizmas\u0131n\u0131 beslemek i\u00e7in bu basit kimyasal \u00f6\u011feler, bitkisel ya da hayvansal g\u0131da bi\u00e7iminde sa\u011flanmal\u0131d\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin patates esas olarak karbon i\u00e7erir, bu\u011fday ekme\u011finde ise yeterli miktarlarda karbon ve nitrojen maddeleri vard\u0131r. [Marx’\u0131n notu.]
[3*] \u015eimdi art\u0131k 100’delik sisteme ge\u00e7mi\u015f bulunan \u0130ngiliz para sisteminde, eskiden, 12 peni 1 \u015filin, ve 20 \u015filin de 1 sterlin ediyordu. -\u00e7.
[4*] Eski Fenikelilerde ve Kartacal\u0131lar\u0131n dininde g\u00fcne\u015f tanr\u0131s\u0131, insanlar\u0131n kurban edildikleri bir put; daha sonralar\u0131 bu ad, her \u015feye kadir y\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 g\u00fcc\u00fcn bir simgesi haline gelmi\u015ftir. -Ed.
[5] Marx’\u0131n kendisinin yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 Almanca \u00e7eviride “m\u00fclkiyetin” yerine “sermayenin” deniyor. -\u00e7.
[1] 28 Eyl\u00fcl 1864’de Londra’da, St. Martin’s Hall’da b\u00fcy\u00fck bir uluslararas\u0131 i\u015f\u00e7i toplant\u0131s\u0131 yap\u0131ld\u0131. Bu toplant\u0131, (sonradan Birinci Enternasyonal olarak bilinen) Uluslararas\u0131 \u0130\u015f\u00e7i Birli\u011fini kurdu ve bu birli\u011fin Ge\u00e7ici Komitesini se\u00e7ti. Karl Marks bu komitenin \u00fcyeleri aras\u0131nda yer ald\u0131 ve bu komitenin 5 Ekim’deki toplant\u0131da Birli\u011fin program belgelerini haz\u0131rlamak \u00fczere atad\u0131\u011f\u0131 komisyona \u00fcye se\u00e7ildi. Bu komisyon, 29 Ekim’de Marks’\u0131n hastal\u0131\u011f\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131nda haz\u0131rlanan bir belgeyi, g\u00f6zden ge\u00e7irmek \u00fczere, kendisine verdi. Mazzini’nin ve Owen’in g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleri do\u011frultusunda yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olan bu gelgeye Marks kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131 ve onun yerine iki yeni belge yazd\u0131: Uluslararas\u0131 \u0130\u015f\u00e7i Birli\u011finin Kurulu\u015f \u00c7a\u011fr\u0131s\u0131 ve Birli\u011fin Ge\u00e7ici T\u00fcz\u00fc\u011f\u00fc, :u .eygeyen molib\u015fohuh 27 Ekim tarihli toplant\u0131s\u0131nda onayland\u0131. 1 Kas\u0131m 1864’te bu \u00c7a\u011fr\u0131 ve T\u00fcz\u00fck, kendisini Uluslararas\u0131 Birli\u011fin y\u00f6netici organ\u0131 haline getiren Ge\u00e7ici Komite taraf\u0131ndan oybirli\u011fi ile kabul edildi. Ge\u00e7ici Komiteye, 1866’n\u0131n sonunda Enternasyonal Genel Konseyi ad\u0131n\u0131 alana dek, genel olarak, Merkez Konsey deniliyordu. Marks bu organ\u0131n fiili \u00f6rg\u00fctleyicisi ve \u00f6nderiydi. Bu organ\u0131n say\u0131s\u0131z \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131, bildirilerini, kararlar\u0131n\u0131 ve \u00f6teki belgelerini kaleme alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.
\u0130lk program belgesi olan Kurulu\u015f \u00c7a\u011fr\u0131s\u0131nda Marks, i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n siyasal iktidar\u0131 ele ge\u00e7irmeleri, ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z bir poreleter partisi kurmalar\u0131 ve \u00f6teki \u00fclkelerin i\u015f\u00e7ileriyle karde\u015f\u00e7e bir ittifak olu\u015fturmalar\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesini vermeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmaktad\u0131r. Bu \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131, ilk kez 1864’de yay\u0131nland\u0131 ve varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 1876’da son bulan Birinci Enternasyonal d\u00f6nemi boyunca birka\u00e7 kez yeniden bask\u0131s\u0131 yap\u0131ld\u0131. -11.
(2)Garrot Pani\u011fi. – 1860’larda kurbanlar\u0131n\u0131 bo\u011farak \u00f6ld\u00fcrenlere garrot deniliyordu. O tarihlerde \u0130ngiltere’de ve \u00f6zellikle Londra’da, bu t\u00fcr cinayetler bir panik yaratm\u0131\u015f ve parlamentoda \u00fczerinde uzun s\u00fcre tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lan bir konu olmu\u015ftur. -12.
[3] Report of the Commissioners Appointed to Inquire into the Operation of The Acts Relating to Transportation and Penal Servitude, vol. I, London 1863. -12.
[4] Amerikan \u0130\u00e7 Sava\u015f\u0131 (1861-1865), Kuzeyin sanayile\u015fmi\u015f devletleri ile G\u00fcneyin asi k\u00f6leci devletleri aras\u0131nda patlak vermi\u015fti. \u0130ngiltere’nin i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131, k\u00f6lecileri destekleyen kendi burjuvazisinin politikas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015f ve \u0130ngiltere’nin i\u00e7 sava\u015fa m\u00fcdahale etmesini \u00f6nlemi\u015ftir. -12.
[5] M\u00fccadelesi birka\u00e7 y\u0131l s\u00fcren On-Saat Tasar\u0131s\u0131, 1864 y\u0131l\u0131nda Tah\u0131l Yasalar\u0131n\u0131n kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131nda toprak aristokrasisi ile sanayi burjuvazisi aras\u0131nda yarat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olan gergin bir ortam i\u00e7ersinde, 1847 y\u0131l\u0131nda yasala\u015ft\u0131. Tah\u0131l Yasalar\u0131n\u0131n kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6c\u00fcn\u00fc almak i\u00e7in Tory’lerden baz\u0131lar\u0131 On-Saat Tasar\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 desteklemi\u015flerdi. -17.\u00a0 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce, de\u011fi\u015fik \u00fclkelerin i\u015f\u00e7ilerini bu Uluslararas\u0131 Birli\u011fi kurmak \u00fczere 28 Eyl\u00fcl 1864’te St. Martin Hall’dak\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131k toplant\u0131da biraraya getirmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"