{"id":393,"date":"2009-03-11T01:09:43","date_gmt":"2009-03-10T22:09:43","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/localhost\/wordpress\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/"},"modified":"2009-03-11T01:09:43","modified_gmt":"2009-03-10T22:09:43","slug":"yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/","title":{"rendered":"Yar\u0131\u015fan Erkeklikler, Erkeklik-Erkek \u0130deali (1.B\u00f6l\u00fcm) | Lynne Segal"},"content":{"rendered":"

<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u201cErkeklik ve kad\u0131nl\u0131k tarihsel zamana ve yere \u00f6zg\u00fc olu\u015fumlard\u0131r. \u0130deolojiler, toplumsal kurumlar ve pratikler i\u00e7inde s\u00fcrekli olarak bi\u00e7imlendirilen, kar\u015f\u0131 konulan, yeniden i\u015flenen ve yeniden onaylanan kategorilerdir. Farkl\u0131 yorumlar\u0131, genelde b\u00fcnle\u015fmi\u015f gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnen bir \u2018sa\u011fduyu\u2019 taraf\u0131ndan \u00f6rt\u00fclse bile, bu \u00e7eli\u015fkili tan\u0131mlar \u00fczerinde daima tart\u0131\u015fma ve de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fe gitme olana\u011f\u0131 vard\u0131r. Toplumsal cinsiyet s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 ihl\u00e2l eden erkekler de kad\u0131nlar da alaya al\u0131nmaktan \u015fiddete kadar bir dizi yapt\u0131r\u0131ma maruz kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r ve kalmaktad\u0131r.\u201d<\/p>\n

Leonore Davidoff ve Catherine Hall<\/p>\n

Norman Mailer\u2019den \u00f6\u011frendi\u011fimize g\u00f6re \u201cBir erkek olmak ki\u015finin ya\u015fam\u0131nda s\u00fcrekli bir m\u00fccadele vermesi demektir.\u201d Kral Arthur\u2019un \u015f\u00f6valyeleri gibi kendisiyle, kad\u0131nlarla, onurla s\u00fcrekli sava\u015fan ger\u00e7ek erkekli\u011fin \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f koruyucular\u0131 h\u00e2l\u00e2 ki\u015finin bir erkek gibi ya\u015famas\u0131 i\u00e7in sertlik, m\u00fccadele ve zafer gerekti\u011fine inan\u0131r. Yine Mailer\u2019e g\u00f6re erkek, \u201chemen hi\u00e7bir zaman nihayet bir erkek haline geldi\u011fini varsayamad\u0131\u011f\u0131\u201d i\u00e7in s\u00fcrekli sava\u015f halindedir. Erkeklerin \u00e7a\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda erkeklik hakk\u0131ndaki endi\u015felerini tarihsel olarak saptamak bunlar\u0131 anlamam\u0131za yard\u0131mc\u0131 olur. \u0130ktidar, emek ve arzu aras\u0131ndaki etkile\u015fimler bizzat tarihsel olarak meydana gelir ve tarihsel olarak de\u011fi\u015firler. Yak\u0131n zamanlarda, modern \u201cerkeklik\u201d (yi\u011fitlik, mertlik) kavramlar\u0131n\u0131n tarih\u00e7esini \u00e7\u0131karma konusuna yeni bir ilgi g\u00f6stermeye ba\u015flayan Bat\u0131l\u0131 tarih\u00e7iler 19. y\u00fczy\u0131la \u201ci\u00e7inde \u00e7a\u011fda\u015f erkeklik ve kad\u0131nl\u0131k anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n bi\u00e7imlendirildi\u011fi bir pota\u201d olarak bakm\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.<\/p>\n

18. y\u00fczy\u0131lda y\u00fckselen burjuva k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn 19. y\u00fczy\u0131ldaki zaferi beraberinde yeni bir ahl\u00e2k ve din\u00ee anlay\u0131\u015f getirmi\u015ftir. \u201cH\u0131ristiyan erkekli\u011fi konusundaki burjuva idealleri ruhani, beyinsel ve ahl\u00e2ki h\u00fck\u00fcmleri oldu\u011fu kadar eme\u011fin de\u011ferini ve erkek\u00e7e ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ve \u00f6zerkli\u011fin \u00f6nemini de \u00f6n plana \u00e7\u0131karm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ancak, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015flar\u0131ndaki H\u0131ristiyan erkekli\u011fine kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k olarak, y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonlar\u0131nda sporun ve fiziksel u\u011fra\u015flar\u0131n \u00f6nem kazanmaya ba\u015flamas\u0131yla birlikte daha me\u015fakkatli, atletik ve konformist bir \u201ckas erkekli\u011fi\u201d kutsanacakt\u0131 (ve bazen de su\u00e7lanacakt\u0131).<\/p>\n

ERKEKL\u0130\u011e\u0130 \u00d6\u011eREN\u0130RKEN: TAR\u0130H\u00ee G\u00d6R\u00dcN\u00dcMLER<\/p>\n

19. y\u00fczy\u0131l boyunca \u0130ngiliz orta s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n k\u00fclt\u00fcrel y\u00fckseli\u015fine, aile i\u00e7i ili\u015fkilerin ve cinsel ili\u015fkilerin s\u00fcrekli olarak yeniden yap\u0131land\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir d\u00f6nem e\u015flik ediyordu. Leonore Davidoff ve Catherine Hall\u2019\u0131n Family Fortunes\u2019da (Aile Saadeti) ba\u015far\u0131yla betimledi\u011fi yeni orta s\u0131n\u0131f ailesi kendi evi\u00e7i uyumunun idilini ya\u015f\u0131yordu: Rahat ve ahl\u00e2ki a\u00e7\u0131dan g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir yuva g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fc. Yuva, teke\u015fli burjuva ailesini istikrarl\u0131, \u00e7al\u0131\u015fkan bir toplumun temeli yapmak i\u00e7in gerekli ahl\u00e2ki g\u00fcc\u00fc sa\u011flayacakt\u0131: \u201cPiyasadaki b\u00fct\u00fcn ko\u015fu\u015fmalar\u0131n hedefi, aile i\u00e7in uygun bir ahl\u00e2ki ve din\u00ee ya\u015fam sa\u011flamakt\u0131.\u201d Bunun yan\u0131 s\u0131ra bir s\u0131k\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma ve tutumluluk ideolojisi benimsenerek (ayr\u0131ca aristokratik hazc\u0131l\u0131k, duyumculuk, tembellik ve efeminelik ele\u015ftirilerek) erkeklerle kad\u0131nlar aras\u0131ndaki psikolojik farkl\u0131l\u0131klar daha da vurgulanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. B\u00f6ylece evin \u00f6zel, \u201ckad\u0131ns\u0131\u201d ortam\u0131yla piyasan\u0131n kamusal, \u201cerkeksi\u201d d\u00fcnyas\u0131 aras\u0131nda durmadan geni\u015fleyen bir u\u00e7urum do\u011fdu. Aile i\u00e7inde bu durum, kad\u0131n i\u00e7in ekonomik ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n artmas\u0131, evlilik-i\u00e7i cinselli\u011fin -evlilik-d\u0131\u015f\u0131 cinselli\u011fe kar\u015f\u0131t olarak- \u00f6neminin daha da vurgulanmas\u0131 (tabii ki, kad\u0131n\u0131n cinselli\u011fine daima kocas\u0131n\u0131n cinsel ihtiya\u00e7lar\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan bak\u0131l\u0131yordu) ve \u00e7ocuklara daha \u00e7ok duygusal yat\u0131r\u0131m yap\u0131lmas\u0131 anlam\u0131na geliyordu (bu, ayn\u0131 zamanda sanayile\u015fmi\u015f kapitalizm d\u00fcnyas\u0131 i\u00e7in, gen\u00e7 erkeklerin n\u00fcfusunun artt\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 ve bu d\u00fcnyan\u0131n taleplerine uygun bir bi\u00e7imde e\u011fitilmesine gittik\u00e7e daha fazla \u00f6nem verilmesi demek oluyordu).<\/p>\n

Matthew Arnold, d\u00fczyaz\u0131lar\u0131nda ve \u015fiirlerinde, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Rugby\u2019nin m\u00fcd\u00fcr\u00fc olan babas\u0131 Dr. Thomas Arnold\u2019un \u00f6\u011fretilerinden edindi\u011fi, H\u0131ristiyan erkekli\u011finin y\u00fcksek ahl\u00e2ki, duygusal ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel ciddiyetini ve duyarl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ifade etmi\u015ftir. Biraz alayc\u0131 olan k\u0131zkarde\u015fi onun \u00fcslubunu iyi yakalam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r: \u201cMatt bir sedire uzan\u0131p Bayan Gaskel\u2019den onu g\u00f6zya\u015flar\u0131na bo\u011fan bir H\u0131ristiyan hikayesi okur ve bu g\u00f6zya\u015flar\u0131yla havaya girerek kendi duyarl\u0131\u011f\u0131na hayran kal\u0131r.\u201d Eski aristokrasi i\u00e7in erkeklik sportmenli\u011fi ve asker\u00ee \u015ferefi ifade ederken, burjuvalar\u0131n H\u0131ristiyan erkekli\u011finde ise, ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta daha \u00e7ok bir t\u00fcr hassasl\u0131k ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel ciddiyet dile getiriliyordu. Bu yeni ideal 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonlar\u0131ndan itibaren t\u00fcm \u0130ngiltere ta\u015fras\u0131na yay\u0131l\u0131p \u201cViktorya d\u00f6neminin muzaffer sa\u011fduyusu\u201d haline gelirken, o g\u00fcn\u00fcn yeni erke\u011fi temiz, al\u00e7akg\u00f6n\u00fcll\u00fc, tertipli, ses tonunu ve fiziksel g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc kontrol edebilen bir ki\u015fi olacak \u015fekilde e\u011fitiliyordu.<\/p>\n

D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel ve duygusal ciddiyetin \u00f6nemini vurgulayan, Samuel Taylor Coleridge gibi erkeklerin yap\u0131tlar\u0131ndan etkilenen bu Arnoldcu yakla\u015f\u0131ma, \u00e7ok ge\u00e7meden 19. y\u00fczy\u0131ldaki orta s\u0131n\u0131f erkekli\u011finin \u00e7ok daha sert \u00e7e\u015fitlemeleri, rakip olmaya ba\u015flad\u0131. \u0130ngiliz Edebiyat\u0131\u2019n\u0131n Ya\u015fl\u0131 Kurt\u2019u Thomas Carlyle, Viktorya d\u00f6nemi ortalar\u0131n\u0131n \u0130ngiltere\u2019sinde \u201cbilek g\u00fcc\u00fc\u201dne ve \u201cy\u00fcreklili\u011fe\u201d dayal\u0131 \u0130ngiliz erkeklik anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n dile getirilmesinde \u00f6nemli bir rol oynad\u0131. Carlyle \u201cfilozoflar\u0131n bilgeli\u011fini\u201d k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fcmseyerek, \u201cErkek d\u00f6v\u00fc\u015fmek i\u00e7in yarat\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r\u201d diyordu. D\u00f6v\u00fc\u015fken bir \u0130ngiliz erkekli\u011fi i\u00e7in d\u00fczd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc \u00f6vg\u00fcler, Vaiz Charles Kingsley taraf\u0131ndan da tekrarland\u0131 ve va\u2019zedildi. Kuvvetli ve meram\u0131n\u0131 anlatmayan kahramanlar\u0131 y\u00fccelten Carlyle gibi Kingsley de fiziksel g\u00fcc\u00fc, cesareti ve sa\u011fl\u0131kl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00f6verek \u201chastal\u0131kl\u0131 i\u00e7 g\u00f6zlem\u201di ve duygular\u0131n d\u0131\u015fa vurulmas\u0131n\u0131 reddetmi\u015ftir.(…) <\/p>\n

Shelley, Keats ve hatta Shakespeare -ve bunun yan\u0131nda di\u011fer sanatsal ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel etkinliklerin \u00e7o\u011fu- yeni, sald\u0131rgan bir erkekli\u011fi savunan ge\u00e7 Viktorya d\u00f6nemi s\u00fcvarilerince, zay\u0131f, hastal\u0131kl\u0131 ve kad\u0131ns\u0131 olmakla su\u00e7lan\u0131yordu. Darwin\u2019in yine 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l sonlar\u0131nda tutulmaya ba\u015flayan evrim kuram\u0131 zay\u0131f\u0131n g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc taraf\u0131ndan ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz olarak safd\u0131\u015f\u0131 b\u0131rak\u0131lmas\u0131 i\u00e7in bilimsel temel sa\u011fl\u0131yordu. Bu kuram \u0130ngiliz erkekli\u011finin \u201cdo\u011fal\u201d \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc her f\u0131rsatta ortaya koymay\u0131 ama\u00e7layan \u0130ngiliz \u0131rk\u00e7\u0131 ve emperyalist ideolojilerini \u00fclke i\u00e7inde ve d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda g\u00fc\u00e7lendirmeye yaram\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/p>\n

James Waldwin gibi bir\u00e7ok tarih\u00e7i, \u0130ngiltere ve Amerika\u2019da 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l sonlar\u0131n\u0131n erkeklik ideallerinde koyu bir atletizmin egemen olmas\u0131n\u0131, emperyalist istilalar\u0131n yay\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve mevcut s\u00f6m\u00fcrgelerin savunulmas\u0131na gittik\u00e7e daha fazla ihtiya\u00e7 duyuldu\u011fu bir zamanda erkeklerin fiziksel zay\u0131fl\u0131\u011f\u0131na kamuoyunda yo\u011fun bir ilgi g\u00f6sterilmesi ba\u011flam\u0131nda a\u00e7\u0131klam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Kuzey Amerikal\u0131 tarih\u00e7i Jeffrey Hantover\u2019\u0131nki gibi bu d\u00f6neme ait di\u011fer incelemeler tam da \u0130ngiltere ve ABD\u2019de burjuvazinin ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131yla alevlenen bir erkeklik bunal\u0131m\u0131na -orta s\u0131n\u0131f ailesinin hayli kad\u0131ns\u0131 atmosferine- dikkat \u00e7ekiyordu. Ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde, hem \u0130ngiltere hem Kuzey Amerika\u2019da (s\u0131n\u0131f ve cinsiyet a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan her iki \u00fclke aras\u0131nda belli farkl\u0131l\u0131klar bulunmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen) yeni ve daha sa\u011fl\u0131ks\u0131z \u015fehir kesimlerinde k\u0131rsal b\u00f6lgenin a\u00e7\u0131k hava ya\u015fant\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 kurtarmaya y\u00f6nelik bir e\u011filim vard\u0131. \u201cKad\u0131n\u201d giderek daha \u00e7ok fiziksel zay\u0131fl\u0131k ve duygusall\u0131kla, \u201cerkek\u201d fiziksel g\u00fc\u00e7 ve \u00f6zg\u00fcvenle ba\u011fda\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131yordu; Jeffrey Weeks\u2019in dedi\u011fi gibi, \u201cErkekler art\u0131k toplum i\u00e7inde kucakla\u015fmaya ve a\u011flamaya cesaret edemiyorlard\u0131.\u201d O g\u00fcn\u00fcn muhalifleri Edward Carpenter\u2019\u0131n da Love\u2019s Coming Age adl\u0131 kitab\u0131nda \u015fikayet etti\u011fi gibi, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonlar\u0131nda bir erkek olmak \u201ct\u00fcm sevgi veya \u015fefkat belirtilerini gizlemek\u201d ve bunun yerine g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fc\u015f itibariyle sert bir erkeklik geli\u015ftirmek demekti.<\/p>\n

Fiziksel beceriyi, cesarete ve k\u00fcstahl\u0131\u011fa dayal\u0131 bu yeni erkeklik ideali \u00f6zellikle 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l ortalar\u0131nda, orta s\u0131n\u0131ftan erkek \u00e7ocuklara y\u00f6nelik e\u011fitim sistemindeki b\u00fcy\u00fck at\u0131l\u0131m sonras\u0131nda en do\u011frudan bi\u00e7imiyle \u00f6zel okullarda a\u015f\u0131land\u0131. Christine Heward\u2019\u0131n \u0130ngiliz \u00f6zel okullar\u0131 hakk\u0131nda yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 incelemesinde betimledi\u011fi gibi, zorunlu tak\u0131m oyunlar\u0131, militer e\u011fitim, k\u00f6t\u00fc yemekler ve zor ko\u015fullarla kat\u0131 bir uyumculuk ve disiplin sa\u011flan\u0131yordu. Bu ac\u0131mas\u0131z okul rejimi I. D\u00fcnya Sava\u015f\u0131 \u00f6ncesinde doruk noktas\u0131na ula\u015ft\u0131 ve 1920\u2019lerden sonra da -pek ortadan kalkm\u0131\u015f say\u0131lamasa bile- ini\u015fe ge\u00e7ti. Arnoldcular\u0131n ilim ve ahl\u00e2kla ilgili \u00f6nceki fikirlerinin yerini neredeyse her yerde rastlanan, fiziksel beceride, cesarette ve duygular\u0131n bast\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131nda direten bir yakla\u015f\u0131m alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131; bu y\u00fczden erkek \u00e7ocu\u011fun \u00f6zel okuldaki ya\u015fant\u0131s\u0131 \u201c\u015fu ya da bu bi\u00e7imde a\u00e7l\u0131\u011fa, so\u011fu\u011fa ve ac\u0131mas\u0131zl\u0131\u011fa kar\u015f\u0131 verilen fiziksel ve psikolojik bir hayatta kalma m\u00fccadelesine d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcyordu.\u201d(…)<\/p>\n

Elimizde bu kat\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 rejimin ne derece etkili oldu\u011funu g\u00f6steren tasvirlerin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra getirdi\u011fi ac\u0131lar\u0131 ve y\u0131k\u0131mlar\u0131 ifade eden bir\u00e7ok otobiyografi bulunmaktad\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin Leonard Woolf, \u00f6zel okulun onda i\u00e7 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnsel ve duygusal hayat\u0131n\u0131 gizleyen bir kabuk olu\u015fturdu\u011funu anlat\u0131r: \u201cErkeklerde bu kabu\u011fun genelde korkakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 gizlemek i\u00e7in geli\u015ftirildi\u011fini san\u0131yorum… Erkek ger\u00e7ek d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ve duygular\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klarsa alaya al\u0131nmaktan veya onaylanmamaktan, bazen de korkular\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131\u011fa \u00e7\u0131karmaktan korkuyordu; i\u015fte bu korku onu as\u0131l benli\u011finin g\u00fcvencede kalmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayacak ikinci bir benlik yaratmaya itecekti… Ebeveynlerimizin bizi g\u00f6nderdi\u011fi \u00f6zel okullarda veya devlet okullar\u0131nda toplumun kar\u015f\u0131 konulmaz silindirinin ezip ge\u00e7ti\u011fi \u015fey, bedenlerimizin i\u00e7inde bu savunmas\u0131z ki\u015filikti; ebeveynlerimizin veya efendilerimizin ve sahiplerimizin bize uygun g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc erkeklik ve centilmenlik imgelerinin alt\u0131nda d\u00fcmd\u00fcz oldu.\u201d<\/p>\n

Yazar Gerald Brennan da benzer d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerini dile getirerek \u015fu sonuca var\u0131r: \u201cOkula hakk\u0131n\u0131 vermek laz\u0131m. Beni d\u00fcnyan\u0131n i\u00e7ine f\u0131rlat\u0131p att\u0131\u011f\u0131nda zihnim ba\u015fka her yere tahamm\u00fcl edecek haldeydi. Sava\u015f\u0131n en k\u00f6t\u00fc anlar\u0131nda bile hi\u00e7 de\u011filse art\u0131k Radley\u2019de olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnerek kendimi avuttum. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc sesleri havay\u0131 \u00e7\u0131nlatan o \u015farapneller ve kur\u015funlar tan\u0131mad\u0131\u011f\u0131m birisinin att\u0131\u011f\u0131 cans\u0131z nesnelerdi; \u00fczerime k\u00f6t\u00fcc\u00fcl bir insan \u00e7ehresi tak\u0131n\u0131p gelmiyorlard\u0131\u201d.<\/p>\n

G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde \u0130ngiliz \u00f6zel okullar\u0131n\u0131n rekabet-k\u00fclt\u00fc art\u0131k bir zamanlarki y\u00fcksek stat\u00fcs\u00fcne sahip de\u011fil, ancak, Vance\u2019\u0131n da dedi\u011fi gibi, ortadan kalkmas\u0131 uzun zaman ald\u0131: \u201cCan \u00e7eki\u015fmesi belki de h\u00e2l\u00e2 s\u00fcr\u00fcyor.\u201d \u00d6zel okul hayat\u0131n\u0131n ac\u0131mas\u0131z y\u00f6nleri 1920\u2019lerden itibaren ini\u015fe ge\u00e7mi\u015f olabilir, ancak eski Etonlular gen\u00e7 birer \u00f6\u011frenciyken 1970\u2019lere dek katlanmak zorunda kald\u0131klar\u0131 m\u00fcthi\u015f so\u011fu\u011fu, korkun\u00e7 yiyecekleri, sonu gelmeyen zorbal\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve korkun\u00e7 dayaklar\u0131 hat\u0131rl\u0131yorlar. Derek Malcolm da bunu do\u011frular: \u201cDurmadan \u00fc\u015f\u00fcyordum ve berbat bir durumdayd\u0131m, akranlar\u0131m\u0131n aras\u0131nda sonsuz bir korku i\u00e7indeydim.\u201d Ayn\u0131 zamanda hemen hepsi de Eton\u2019da kazand\u0131klar\u0131 \u201cZahmetsiz \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fck\u201d duygusunu ve \u00f6zellikle de bir\u00e7o\u011funun okuldaki son y\u0131llar\u0131nda kendilerinden emin ve kibirli bir bi\u00e7imde di\u011fer \u00e7ocuklara bask\u0131 yapt\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 ve hayatlar\u0131n\u0131 denetlediklerini ifade ederler: 1970\u2019lerde Eton\u2019da \u00f6\u011frenci olan David Thomas, \u201cPop grubundaysan\u0131z (Eton\u2019un son s\u0131n\u0131f \u00f6\u011frencileri aras\u0131ndaki en sayg\u0131n grup) t\u00fcm hayat\u0131n\u0131zda bu denli tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lmaz bir \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fck ve kontrol sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131z bir durumla bir daha asla kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fmayacaks\u0131n\u0131zd\u0131r\u201d diye yazar. K\u0131sacas\u0131, hiyerar\u015fi ve rekabet bu kurumun ba\u015fta gelen ethos\u2019u olarak kalm\u0131\u015f ve David Thomas\u2019\u0131n da belirtti\u011fi gibi \u201cb\u00fct\u00fcn duygusal tepkiler bast\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f\u201d eskisi gibi s\u00fcrekli olarak spora \u00f6nem verilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

Viktorya d\u00f6neminde, orta s\u0131n\u0131f okul hayat\u0131n\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131nda da burjuva erkeklik idealleri benimsetilmeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131l\u0131yordu. \u0130\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131na mensup sayg\u0131n erke\u011fin gururu, ailesini ge\u00e7indirebilecek kadar para kazanmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayacak nezih bir i\u015fe girme olas\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131na dayan\u0131yordu. Bulu\u011f \u00e7a\u011f\u0131ndaki \u201cdelikanl\u0131lar\u201d\u0131n, \u00f6zellikle ba\u015flarda kendilerden ya\u015fl\u0131 ki\u015filerin \u00e7e\u015fitli a\u015fa\u011f\u0131lamalar\u0131na maruz kalacaklar\u0131, \u201ckulluk\u201d olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclen bir \u00e7\u0131rakl\u0131k d\u00f6neminden ge\u00e7meleri gelecekteki ekonomik g\u00fcvenliklerini garanti alt\u0131na almalar\u0131 ve bu nedenle erkekli\u011fe ge\u00e7meleri i\u00e7in zorunluydu, ancak yeterli de\u011fildi. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc, sayg\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan erke\u011fin (19. y\u00fczy\u0131l sonlar\u0131nda \u0130ngiliz i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir az\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturuyor olsalar da) stat\u00fcs\u00fc, kad\u0131nlar\u0131n -i\u015fverenlerin i\u015fg\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc ucuzlatmaya y\u00f6nelik stratejilerine kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k vermek i\u00e7in- vas\u0131fl\u0131 i\u015flerden d\u0131\u015flanmas\u0131na ve kad\u0131nlar\u0131n evdeki ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 konumlar\u0131na dayan\u0131yordu. Thomas Highes gibi H\u0131ristiyan sosyalistler 1860\u2019larda ve 1970\u2019lerde sendika m\u00fccadeleleri veren, i\u015f\u00e7i erkeklerin ilk d\u00f6nemlerde kurdu\u011fu \u00f6rg\u00fctlerle i\u015fbirli\u011fine girerek Hughes\u2019un \u00f6zel okul erkekli\u011finden uyarlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir erkeklik bi\u00e7imini -evrensel bir karde\u015flik retori\u011fi \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde a\u011f\u0131r fiziksel \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmay\u0131 ve i\u015fbirlik\u00e7i tak\u0131m ruhunu- desteklediler. Bununla birlikte, i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131ndan \u00e7o\u011fu kimsenin hayatta kalmak i\u00e7in geli\u015ftirdi\u011fi stratejiler, erke\u011fin kendi al\u0131n teriyle ailesini ge\u00e7indirebilme becerisine dayand\u0131r\u0131lamazd\u0131 – kar\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n ve k\u0131zlar\u0131n\u0131n da bulabildikleri i\u015flere girmeleri gerekiyordu. Ancak yine de, ge\u00e7 Viktorya ve Edward d\u00f6nemlerinden modern \u00e7a\u011flara kadar erkek \u00e7ocuklar i\u00e7in \u00e7e\u015fitli kul\u00fcpler, izci dernekleri kurularak yoksul emek\u00e7iler aras\u0131nda orta s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n erkeklik idealleri yay\u0131lmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131ld\u0131. A\u015fa\u011f\u0131 orta s\u0131n\u0131f ebeveynleri ve g\u00f6z\u00fc y\u00fckseklerde olan i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 ebeveynleri bu gibi giri\u015fimleri desteklemediler ancak, gen\u00e7 i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 erkeklerinin \u00e7o\u011funa g\u00f6re bu t\u00fcr bir erkeklik s\u00f6zde e\u011fitimcilerinin \u201choliganizm\u201d ad\u0131n\u0131 verdikleri \u015feyle e\u015fanlaml\u0131yd\u0131: \u201cErkekli\u011fe kabaday\u0131l\u0131k, kavgac\u0131l\u0131k, alkol ve \u015fiddetin \u00fcretti\u011fi bir kay\u0131ts\u0131zl\u0131kla ula\u015f\u0131lacakt\u0131.\u201d \u201cHoligan\u201d terimi 1890\u2019lar\u0131n sonunda \u0130ngiliz gazetelerinde kullan\u0131lmaya ba\u015flanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131; bununla sokak \u00e7eteleri ve serseri gen\u00e7lik kastediliyordu. \u201cErkek\u00e7e\u201d d\u00f6v\u00fc\u015fkenlikleri yurt d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki \u201cbarbarlar\u201da boyun e\u011fdirmeye de\u011fil de \u00fclkeye \u201cbarbarl\u0131k\u201d ruhu getirmeye kanalize edilmi\u015f olan bu gen\u00e7 erkekler asl\u0131nda \u0130ngiliz olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclm\u00fcyordu. Bader-Powell 1910\u2019da yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi hep i\u00e7teki d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131 \u0131slah edecek tek g\u00fcc\u00fcn kendi izcilik hareketi oldu\u011funa inanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131: \u0130\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 \u201choliganlar\u0131\u201d imha etmekten ba\u015fka bir \u00e7are olmayan bir \u00e7\u00f6pl\u00fck haline gelmektense karakterli ki\u015filer haline getirilecekti. Bu da \u00f6zel okul d\u00fcsturlar\u0131 izlenerek -gen\u00e7leri uygun \u00fcniformalarla donatarak, \u00f6rg\u00fctl\u00fc talimler ve sportif etkinlikler arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla disiplin a\u015f\u0131layarak- ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilecekti. \u0130\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n gen\u00e7 erkekleri pek ikna olmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131; bazen izcilere ta\u015f at\u0131p \u00fcniformalar\u0131yla alay ediyorlard\u0131. Ancak Baden-Powell y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda Londra sokaklar\u0131nda sa\u011f kalmak i\u00e7in gerekli olan kaba, ac\u0131mas\u0131z bir kabaday\u0131l\u0131kla o s\u0131ralar \u0130ngiliz \u00f6zel okullar\u0131nda te\u015fvik edilen kaba g\u00fcce dayal\u0131, militer bir erkeklik veya Amerika\u2019daki e\u015fde\u011feri aras\u0131nda benzer y\u00f6nler bulmakta tamamiyle haks\u0131z de\u011fildi.<\/p>\n

1870 ile 1914 aras\u0131ndaki d\u00f6nem Anglo-Sakson erkeklik ideolojilerinin bir d\u00f6n\u00fcm noktas\u0131 olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclegelmi\u015ftir. \u0130ngiltere\u2019de Baden-Powell, Kuzey Amerika\u2019da Roosevelt, yeni emperyalist, her zaman galip gelen, beyaz erkekli\u011fin sporculuk, avc\u0131l\u0131k, yurtseverlik ve uyumculuk \u201cmeziyetlerini\u201d \u00f6rnek olarak g\u00f6stermi\u015flerdi. Bu, yar\u0131m as\u0131r boyunca en pop\u00fcler Bat\u0131 erkeklik imgesini bilin\u00e7li olarak temsil eden Ernest Hemingway\u2019in sonuna kadar kullanaca\u011f\u0131 bir mirast\u0131.<\/p>\n

SERT ERKEKLER: KAHRAMANLIK PE\u015e\u0130NDE KO\u015eANLAR <\/p>\n

20. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ortalar\u0131ndaki \u00e7o\u011fu Amerikal\u0131 i\u00e7in oldu\u011fu gibi, Norman Mailer i\u00e7in de (asl\u0131nda sava\u015f sonras\u0131 Kuzey Amerika\u2019n\u0131n k\u00fclt\u00fcr emperyalizmine giderek daha \u00e7ok boyun e\u011fen t\u00fcm d\u00fcnya i\u00e7in) Hemingway ger\u00e7ek erkekli\u011fi hem somut varl\u0131\u011f\u0131yla cisimle\u015ftiren hem de romanla\u015ft\u0131ran ki\u015fiydi. John Updike \u201970\u2019lerin ba\u015f\u0131nda, \u201cT\u00fcm bir Amerikan erkek nesli (onun) stoac\u0131 \u00fcslubuyla konu\u015fmay\u0131 \u00f6\u011frenmi\u015fti\u201d diyordu. Eserleri -her sat\u0131r\u0131 eylemle dolu, somut, veciz d\u00fczyaz\u0131 \u00fcslubu- ve hayat\u0131 -boks, safari, at\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k, bal\u0131k av\u0131, i\u00e7ki, k\u00fcf\u00fcr, fuhu\u015f dahil akla gelebilecek b\u00fct\u00fcn erkek\u00e7e i\u015fler \u015fampiyonu- d\u00fcnyaya erkekli\u011fin anlam\u0131n\u0131; sert, yurtsever Kuzey Amerikan erkekli\u011fini \u00f6\u011fretmeye adanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Hayat\u0131n\u0131 ve eserlerini kendi erkeklik efsanesine adayan \u201cBaba\u201d Hemingway (27 ya\u015f\u0131ndan itibaren kendisine b\u00f6yle denilmesini istemi\u015fti) bize bu erkekli\u011fin s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131n nereye vard\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 da g\u00f6sterir. Kronik can s\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131s\u0131n\u0131, uykusuzluk \u00e7ekti\u011fini, yalan s\u00f6ylemeyi ve kendi kendini aldatmay\u0131 al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131k edindi\u011fini, kendi hayat\u0131n\u0131 bir tiyatro oyunu gibi oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, korkun\u00e7 k\u0131skan\u00e7l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, kabaday\u0131l\u0131\u011fa varan rekabet\u00e7ili\u011fini, arkada\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 da d\u00fc\u015fmanlar\u0131n\u0131 da ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde ac\u0131mas\u0131zca a\u015fa\u011f\u0131lad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6rmek pek zor de\u011fildi. Saf kan erkekli\u011fi gitgide tam bir paronoyaya, kendi kendini harap etmeye ve \u00f6l\u00fcm korkusuna -ve ayn\u0131 zamanda \u00f6zlemine- d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc; bunu tam bir \u00e7\u00f6k\u00fcnt\u00fc ve intihar izledi.
\u00c7a\u011fda\u015flar\u0131ndan \u00e7ok az\u0131, -\u00f6rne\u011fin Gertrude Stein ve Zelda Fitzgerald- Hemingway t\u00fcr\u00fc ya\u015fam ve yaz\u0131 \u00fcslubunun erkekli\u011fi \u00e7ok fazla \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131rken g\u00fcvensizli\u011fi pek gizleyemedi\u011fini \u00f6nceden anlayabilmi\u015flerdi. Hemingway, ayn\u0131 imaj\u0131 \u00fcstlenen roman yazarlar\u0131n\u0131n olu\u015fturdu\u011fu bir ekol\u00fcn do\u011fmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131, ancak ele\u015ftirmen Max Eastman\u2019e g\u00f6re bu \u201cSonu\u00e7ta \u00e7uvallam\u0131\u015f bir edebiyat \u00fcslubuydu.\u201d Hemingway\u2019in feci \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn (Mailer bu \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc \u2018Amerika\u2019da Roosvelt\u2019inkinden bu yana en zor \u00f6l\u00fcm\u2019 diye tan\u0131ml\u0131yordu, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc ya\u015fama \u2018cesareti\u2019ni sorguluyordu) \u00fczerinden \u00e7ok ge\u00e7meden, \u201cBaba\u201dn\u0131n vah\u015fice bast\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir pasifli\u011fi ve \u201ckad\u0131ns\u0131\u201d \u00f6zlemleri oldu\u011funa ili\u015fkin kan\u0131tlar tamamiyle ortaya d\u00f6k\u00fclecekti. \u00d6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden sonra yay\u0131nlanan The Garden of Eden\u2019da (Cennet Bah\u00e7esi) cinsel pasiflikten ve cinsel kimlik de\u011fi\u015fiminden zevk ald\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n belirtileri -daha \u00f6nceki yap\u0131tlar\u0131nda da rastlanm\u0131yor de\u011fildir- a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyordu. Yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 en erotik metin olan bu yap\u0131t\u0131n kahraman\u0131 David Bourne g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir iradesi olan ve gitgide h\u0131r\u00e7\u0131nla\u015fan -hep bir erkek olmay\u0131 istemi\u015f olan- gen\u00e7 kar\u0131s\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan aras\u0131ra bir kad\u0131n gibi davranmaya ikna edilir. Kar\u0131s\u0131 sa\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 erkek gibi keser, erkek oldu\u011funu s\u00f6yler ve David ile sanki bir kad\u0131nm\u0131\u015f gibi sevi\u015firken David\u2019in \u201c i\u00e7indeki a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ve garipli\u011fin\u201d bilincine keyifle vararak hissetti\u011fi \u015feyleri s\u00f6yler: \u201cDe\u011fi\u015fiyorsun …Oh, evet. \u0130\u015fte, sen benim kad\u0131n\u0131ms\u0131n… De\u011fi\u015f, kad\u0131n\u0131m ol ve kendini bana b\u0131rak\u201d.<\/p>\n

Hemingway\u2019in son biyografisinin yazar\u0131 Kenneth Lynn\u2019e g\u00f6re bu sahne Hemingway\u2019in d\u00f6rd\u00fcnc\u00fc kar\u0131s\u0131 Mary ile mutlu bir cinsel birlikteli\u011fi hakk\u0131nda g\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne yazd\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 hat\u0131rlatmaktad\u0131r. 1948\u2019de g\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne \u015funlar\u0131 kaydetmi\u015ftir: \u201cHep bir erkek olmak istemi\u015ftir ve erkek gibi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcr.. Kad\u0131nlar\u0131 olmam\u0131 istiyor; ben de tamamen aptal olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131m i\u00e7in bundan ho\u015flan\u0131yorum… Mary\u2019nin beni kucaklamas\u0131ndan zevk ald\u0131m; bana tamamiyle yeni ve t\u00fcm t\u00f6relerin d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda bir \u015feymi\u015f gibi geldi. Aral\u0131\u011f\u0131n on dokuzunda denedik bunlar\u0131; hayat\u0131mda hi\u00e7 bu kadar mutlu olmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131m\u201d.<\/p>\n

Ancak, Hemingway\u2019in bu eril pasifli\u011fi ve \u201ckad\u0131ns\u0131\u201d \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015fmesi genelde aniden erotizmden sald\u0131rganl\u0131\u011fa d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcyordu. K\u00fcfredip a\u015fa\u011f\u0131lad\u0131\u011f\u0131 kar\u0131lar\u0131na, Mary\u2019nin deyi\u015fiyle \u201c\u015famar o\u011flan\u0131\u201d gibi davran\u0131yordu. Lynn\u2019e g\u00f6re bu \u00e7eli\u015fkiler kendine yak\u0131\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131 kat\u0131ks\u0131z erkekli\u011fi tehdit ederek t\u00fcm hayat\u0131 boyunca ona eziyet vermi\u015fti. Hemingway\u2019in ard\u0131 arkas\u0131 kesilmeyen teatral b\u00f6b\u00fcrlenmelerinin, att\u0131\u011f\u0131 -zaman zaman delili\u011fe varan- yalanlar\u0131n ve b\u0131k\u0131p usanmadan dost d\u00fc\u015fman g\u00f6zetmeksizin ba\u015fkalar\u0131na y\u00f6neltti\u011fi k\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131k, iktidars\u0131zl\u0131k ve e\u015fcinsellik su\u00e7lamalar\u0131n\u0131n temelinde cinsel hassasl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve kendi erkekli\u011fiyle ilgili endi\u015feleri yatmaktayd\u0131. Hemingway\u2019in s\u00fcrekli olarak ayn\u0131 karabasan\u0131 g\u00f6rmesinin, asl\u0131nda bir korkaktan ba\u015fka bir \u015fey olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmesinin ard\u0131nda g\u00f6zlenen ger\u00e7ek de buydu – \u201cinsan\u0131n sahip olabilece\u011fi en k\u00f6t\u00fc \u015fanst\u0131 bu.\u201d<\/p>\n

Lynn, Hemingway\u2019in \u00e7ekti\u011fi i\u015fkencelerin \u00e7ocuklu\u011funa dayand\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klar: \u201cHemingway annesinin tutumu nedeniyle normal bir \u00e7ocukluk ge\u00e7irmemi\u015ftir\u201d. Annesi Grace Hemingway o\u011fluna iki ya\u015f\u0131na dek k\u0131z elbiseleri giydirmi\u015fti. Ernest ile ablas\u0131n\u0131 ayn\u0131 cinsiyetten ikizler gibi -bazen k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck k\u0131zlarm\u0131\u015f, bazen k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck o\u011flan \u00e7ocuklar\u0131ym\u0131\u015f gibi- giydiriyor ve \u00f6yle davran\u0131yordu. Dahas\u0131, bu anne sportmen, \u00e7ok \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan kocas\u0131n\u0131 da idaresi alt\u0131na alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. \u0130leride, ya\u015fl\u0131l\u0131k ve hastal\u0131kla y\u00fczy\u00fcze gelen babas\u0131 da onu intihara kalk\u0131\u015facacak kadar \u201ckorkak\u201d olmakla su\u00e7layacakt\u0131. Ancak Lynn\u2019in, Hemingway\u2019in kendisini etkisinden hi\u00e7 kurtaramad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 hissetti\u011fi (ve kesinlikle t\u00fcm hayat\u0131 boyunca nefret etti\u011fini ileri s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc), otoriter, despot bir anne taraf\u0131ndan cinsel b\u00fct\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc zedelenen bir erkek oldu\u011fu y\u00f6n\u00fcndeki \u0131srarlar\u0131 bana g\u00f6re abart\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r. Ayr\u0131ca, y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015flar\u0131nda annelerin k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck ya\u015flardaki erkek \u00e7ocuklar\u0131na k\u0131z elbiseleri giydirmeleri, hatta kocalar\u0131ndan daha g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc ki\u015filiklere sahip olmalar\u0131 da pek al\u0131\u015f\u0131lmam\u0131\u015f bir \u015fey de\u011fildi.<\/p>\n

Hemingway\u2019in daha pasif, \u201ckad\u0131ns\u0131\u201d duygular\u0131ndan korktu\u011fu ve bunlar\u0131 bast\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131 yads\u0131namaz. Ancak b\u00f6yle \u00e7eli\u015fkili, duygular\u0131n bu \u00e7ok sert erkekte ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131 pek \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 de\u011fildir; kuramsal a\u00e7\u0131dan basit bir biyolojik cinsiyet kuram\u0131na ba\u011fl\u0131 olsayd\u0131k en az\u0131ndan bir dereceye kadar bunu bekleyebilirdik. Hemingway\u2019in sonunda paronoyaya kap\u0131lmas\u0131na ve intihar etmesine bak\u0131lacak olursa durup dinlenmeden erkekli\u011fini kan\u0131tlama \u00e7abalar\u0131n\u0131n ard\u0131nda belki de al\u0131\u015f\u0131lmad\u0131k derecede a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 bir psikopatoloji vard\u0131. Ancak bu do\u011fruysa \u201canormal\u201d olan her zamanki gibi \u201cnormal\u201d olanla ilgili ger\u00e7ekleri ortaya koyacakt\u0131r. Hemingway\u2019in bir erkek olarak ya\u015fay\u0131\u015f bi\u00e7iminde benim ilgimi \u00e7eken \u015fey, bizim \u201cnormal\u201d erkeklik idealimizle ilgili olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015feylerdir. Hen\u00fcz ya\u015farken bir efsane olmas\u0131n\u0131n getirdi\u011fi k\u00fclt\u00fcrel bask\u0131lar Hemingway\u2019i normal stereotipi oynamaya itmi\u015ftir. Bunu harfi harfine ve sonuna dek uygulayan Hemingway\u2019in ya\u015fant\u0131s\u0131, b\u00f6yle bir konumun ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz anormalli\u011fini ortaya d\u00f6ker. Erkek kahraman modelinin arkatipi olarak hayat\u0131n\u0131 kendi efsanesinin gerektirdi\u011fi gibi ya\u015famaya karar vermi\u015fken (ne de olsa bu ona \u00fcn, servet ve g\u00fczel kad\u0131nlar\u0131n a\u015fk\u0131n\u0131 getirmi\u015ftir), bu miti yalans\u0131z dolans\u0131z ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmenin kesinlikle imkans\u0131z olmas\u0131 s\u00fcrekli akl\u0131n\u0131 kurcalam\u0131\u015f olabilir. Dorothy Parker 1929\u2019da New Yorker dergisinde onu tarif ederken, \u201cHayatta g\u00f6rme ayr\u0131cal\u0131\u011f\u0131na eri\u015fti\u011fim en ihti\u015faml\u0131 ki\u015fiydi\u201d diyerek ona kar\u015f\u0131 bir turistin B\u00fcy\u00fck Kanyon\u2019da bir g\u00fcnbat\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n muhte\u015fem g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcne duydu\u011fu t\u00fcrden bir sayg\u0131 duydu\u011funu itiraf etmi\u015fti. Kendisinin dedi\u011fi gibi tamamen aptal olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan, bir tiyatro oyunu gibi oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131 hayat\u0131n\u0131n teatral bir \u015farlatanl\u0131k oldu\u011funun en az\u0131ndan k\u0131smen fark\u0131na varm\u0131\u015f olabilir. Ancak, yaz\u0131lar\u0131ndan g\u00f6rebildi\u011fimiz kadar\u0131yla kendisi hakk\u0131nda uzun boylu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeye al\u0131\u015f\u0131k olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan -zora gelince kurnazl\u0131\u011fa ba\u015fvururken, boks ma\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 hileyle \u201ckazan\u0131rken\u201d ve hayat\u0131n\u0131n sonuna dek yalanlarla ya\u015fam\u0131\u015fken- temsil etti\u011fi erkekli\u011fin mitolojik niteli\u011fini g\u00f6rememi\u015fti. Zelda Fitzgerald, Hemingway\u2019e bakt\u0131\u011f\u0131nda hi\u00e7bir erke\u011fin bu kadar erkeksi olamayaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015f, ayr\u0131ca kendi kocas\u0131yla onun aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fkide belirsiz bir \u015feyler oldu\u011funu hissetmi\u015fti – hatta (biyografi yazarlar\u0131na g\u00f6re yanl\u0131\u015f yere) birbirlerinin a\u015f\u0131\u011f\u0131 olabileceklerinden \u015f\u00fcphelenmi\u015fti.<\/p>\n

Hemingway\u2019in eril kimli\u011fiyle m\u00fccadelesi ger\u00e7ek bir ikileme \u0131\u015f\u0131k tutar: Kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 olarak tan\u0131mlanan bir \u015fey olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 s\u00fcrece, \u201ckat\u0131ks\u0131z\u201d bir erkeklik ya\u015fanamaz. Hi\u00e7 kimse, en temel insani \u00f6zelliklerinin \u00e7o\u011funa, kendisine ve ba\u015fkalar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 duyarl\u0131l\u0131k g\u00f6sterme yetene\u011fine, yumu\u015fak y\u00fcreklili\u011fine, ba\u015fkalar\u0131n\u0131n duygular\u0131n\u0131 payla\u015fma yetene\u011fine, korku ve zay\u0131fl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ger\u00e7ekli\u011fine, pasifli\u011fin hazlar\u0131na -\u015f\u00fcphesiz hepsi de \u00f6z\u00fcnde \u201ckad\u0131ns\u0131\u201dd\u0131r- \u015fiddetle kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131kmadan \u201cbu kadar erkek olamaz.\u201d \u201cKad\u0131ns\u0131l\u0131k\u201d erkek\u00e7e u\u011fra\u015flar\u0131n kay\u0131ts\u0131z kabaday\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7inde bast\u0131r\u0131labilir bast\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131na, ama bu zafer kazanan kahraman\u0131 daima rahats\u0131z etmeye devam edecektir. Hemingway bu nedenle \u201corospu\u201d dedi\u011fi annesinden hayat\u0131 boyunca korkmu\u015ftur; Norman Mailer bu nedenle roman\u0131nda \u201cb\u00fcy\u00fck orospu\u201dyu, kad\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6ld\u00fcrt\u00fcr, (kendisi de bir kez b\u00f6yle bir giri\u015fimde bulunmu\u015ftur); ve kendisini general ilan eden e\u015fcinsel Japon yazar\u0131, sa\u011fc\u0131 fanatik Yukio Mi\u015fhima bu nedenle delicesine erkeklik pe\u015finde ko\u015fmu\u015ftur: Bu aray\u0131\u015f, tamam\u0131yla erkeksi bir nesne, tam bir erkek olmak i\u00e7in benli\u011fini b\u00fct\u00fcn bilincinden ar\u0131nd\u0131rma iste\u011fini do\u011furmu\u015ftur – bunun sadece kendini yok olma an\u0131nda, \u00f6l\u00fcm an\u0131nda m\u00fcmk\u00fcn olabilece\u011fi sonucuna vararak intihar etmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

\u201cSAVA\u015e\u00c7I ERKEKLER\u201d: FA\u015e\u0130ZM\u0130N CAZ\u0130BES\u0130<\/p>\n

Theodore Adorno 1944\u2019de, \u201cHem kendimizde hem de ba\u015fkalar\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fclen erkeksi tav\u0131rlarda \u015f\u00fcphe uyand\u0131ran bir \u015fey vard\u0131r\u201d demi\u015fti. K\u00fclt\u00fcrel \u00e7eli\u015fkileri tespit etmekte \u00e7ok ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 olan Adorno, erkekli\u011fin vurgulanmas\u0131nda b\u00f6yle bir \u00e7eli\u015fkinin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc s\u00f6ylemi\u015ftir: \u201cSert erkekler sonu\u00e7ta onlar gibi olduklar\u0131n\u0131 kabul etmemek i\u00e7in g\u00fc\u00e7s\u00fcz kurbanlara ihtiyac\u0131 olan, as\u0131l efemine ki\u015filerdir… g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc erke\u011fin ve uysal gen\u00e7li\u011fin kar\u015f\u0131tlar\u0131 eril egemenlik ilkesini kat\u0131ks\u0131z bir bi\u00e7imde d\u0131\u015favuran bir d\u00fczende biraraya gelir.\u201d Adorno ve Frankfurt Okulu\u2019nun di\u011fer \u00fcyeleri, 1930\u2019larda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan otoriter ailelerle ilgili \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131nda Almanya\u2019da nazizmin y\u00fckseli\u015fini ve ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 ilk analiz edenlerdendir. Fa\u015fizmin otoriter ki\u015filik tipine cazip geldi\u011fini ileri s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015flerdir: Ebeveynlerinden kat\u0131 bir disiplin alan insanlar, hem kendi cinsel d\u00fcrt\u00fclerini hem de ebeveynlerine d\u00fc\u015fmanl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 bast\u0131rarak zay\u0131f veya g\u00fc\u00e7s\u00fcz g\u00f6r\u00fclen herkese cinselliklerini yans\u0131t\u0131p, sald\u0131rganl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 y\u00f6neltirler.<\/p>\n

Psikanalitik uslamlamadan ve (nicel, hayli saydam, davran\u0131\u015f\u00e7\u0131 anket teknikleriyle garip bir bi\u00e7imde bir araya getirilen) kapsaml\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fmelerden yararlan\u0131larak haz\u0131rlanan The Authoritian Personality (Otoriter Ki\u015filik) 1950\u2019de ABD\u2019de So\u011fuk Sava\u015f d\u00f6neminde yay\u0131mland\u0131\u011f\u0131nda ara\u015ft\u0131rma eskisinden daha az rahats\u0131z edici bir bi\u00e7im alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu kitapta fa\u015fizm e\u011filimine temel olu\u015fturdu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclen otoriter karakterin dokuz \u00f6zelli\u011fi saptanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r: Adetlere s\u0131k\u0131 s\u0131k\u0131ya ba\u011fl\u0131l\u0131k, otoriteye itaat, otoriter sald\u0131rganl\u0131k, \u00f6znel ve yarat\u0131c\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceye kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131k, bat\u0131l inan\u00e7 ve kat\u0131 tiplemecilik, iktidar, sertlik\/egemenlik ve itaat saplant\u0131s\u0131, genel bir y\u0131k\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k ve kinizm, tehlikeli d\u00fcrt\u00fcleri ba\u015fkalar\u0131na yans\u0131tma ve sekse kar\u015f\u0131 abart\u0131l\u0131 bir ilgi.<\/p>\n

Adorno ve arkada\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131nda cinsiyet konusuna do\u011frudan do\u011fruya de\u011finilmemi\u015ftir, ancak otoriter karakter o zamandan itibaren \u00f6z\u00fcnde bir erkek \u00f6zelli\u011fi -g\u00fc\u00e7 taslayarak ve (ak\u0131lla de\u011fil, do\u011fas\u0131 gere\u011fi bedenle ilgili g\u00f6r\u00fclen) nazik, kendili\u011finden, yumu\u015fak, sakin, kaotik her \u015feyi reddederek zay\u0131f duygular\u0131 ve ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131l\u0131k duygular\u0131n\u0131 gizlemeye y\u00f6nelik bir iktidar maskesi- olarak tan\u0131mlanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Sonu\u00e7ta, s\u0131k s\u0131k \u201cFa\u015fizmin asl\u0131nda erkek\u00e7ili\u011fin (masculinism) a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 ve m\u00fckemmel bir ifadesi…kad\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131n do\u011fal d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131, temel kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131\u201d oldu\u011fu ileri s\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Buradaki yorumla fa\u015fizm, erkekliklerini m\u00fcmk\u00fcn olan en u\u00e7 noktaya kadar ya\u015fayan erkeklerin \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcd\u00fcr. Bu t\u00fcrden bir analiz Klaus Theweleit\u2019\u0131n \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck yank\u0131 uyand\u0131ran yo\u011fun Male Fantasies (Erkek Fantezileri) adl\u0131 kitab\u0131nda da yer almaktad\u0131r. Kitapta kad\u0131nlara, cinselli\u011fe ve bedene kar\u015f\u0131 duyuyan b\u00fcy\u00fck korku \u00fczerine kurulu bir erkek kimli\u011fi \u00fcslubu olarak fa\u015fizm incelenmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

Theweleit, kitab\u0131na, Freikorps\u2019da kat\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olan bir grup erke\u011fin yazd\u0131\u011f\u0131 an\u0131lar\u0131n, mektuplar\u0131n ve romanlar\u0131n ayr\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 metin analiziyle ba\u015flar. Bunlar, I. D\u00fcnya Sava\u015f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n sonunda sivil hayata d\u00f6nmeyen Alman subaylar\u0131 ve askerleriydi. Almanya \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu\u2019nun y\u0131k\u0131l\u0131p Weimar Cumhuriyeti\u2019nin kurulmas\u0131ndan sonra farkl\u0131 otoriteler taraf\u0131ndan i\u015f\u00e7i ayaklanmalar\u0131n\u0131 bast\u0131rmak ve liderlerini \u00f6ld\u00fcrmek i\u00e7in kiralanarak (\u00f6rne\u011fin 1923\u2019deki Spartakist ayaklanmas\u0131 ve Rosa Luxemburg\u2019un \u00f6ld\u00fcr\u00fclmesi) \u00fclkeyi dola\u015fmaya ba\u015flad\u0131lar. Bir\u00e7o\u011fu nasyonal sosyalist hareket kat\u0131ld\u0131 ve ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131nda \u00f6nemli bir rol oynad\u0131. Theweleit\u2019a g\u00f6re, yazd\u0131klar\u0131 \u015feyler sadece proto-fa\u015fistlerin ger\u00e7ek korkular\u0131n\u0131 ve saplant\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 de\u011fil, genel olarak erkek kimli\u011finin i\u00e7 motivasyonunu da ortaya koyuyordu: \u201cBir\u00e7ok feministin iddia etti\u011fi gibi, fa\u015fizmin tamamiyle kapitalist-ataerkil ko\u015fullarda ya\u015fayan erkeklere ili\u015fkin bir norm oldu\u011fu do\u011fru mudur?\u201d<\/p>\n

Bu erkeklerin an\u0131lar\u0131nda kad\u0131nlarla herhangi bir samimiyet kurduklar\u0131na ili\u015fkin hi\u00e7bir ifadenin yer almamas\u0131 g\u00f6ze \u00e7arpar. Kar\u0131lar\u0131yla veya sevgilileriyle ilgili olarak neredeyse hi\u00e7bir \u015fey yazmam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. Evlilikleri konusunda yazd\u0131klar\u0131nda bile kar\u0131lar\u0131ndan ismen bahsetmezler, sanki sadece erkeklerin g\u00f6lgesi olarak sunulur bu kad\u0131nlar. \u00c7o\u011fu sat\u0131\u015f rekoru k\u0131ran bu otobiyografilerde ve romanlarda yer alan kad\u0131nlar aras\u0131nda kesin kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131klar olu\u015fturulur: Kat\u0131 ve ruhsuz \u201cbeyaz\u201d kad\u0131nlar (k\u0131zkarde\u015fler, hem\u015fireler, bakireler, \u00f6lm\u00fc\u015f kad\u0131nlar) -sofu, aristokrat, meleksi, s\u0131cakkanl\u0131 ve seksi \u201ck\u0131z\u0131l\u201d kad\u0131nlar (kom\u00fcnistler, i\u015f\u00e7iler, asiler)- \u015fehvet d\u00fc\u015fk\u00fcn\u00fc, i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131ndan, g\u00fcnahkar kad\u0131nlar. Freikorps edebiyat\u0131 sel ve ak\u0131nt\u0131 imgeleriyle -gerek kan seli, gerek kad\u0131nlar\u0131n ve kitlelerin sel gibi ak\u0131\u015f\u0131- doludur ve bu imgeleri kom\u00fcnist kaostan -Almanya \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu\u2019nu \u00e7\u00f6kertti\u011fi ve y\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclen \u201cBol\u015fevik Dalgas\u0131\u201dndan- duyulan korkuyla ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 oldu\u011fu anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r. Bununla birlikte, Bol\u015fevik seli ile kad\u0131nlar aras\u0131nda da ba\u011flant\u0131 kurulur, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc duyguyu, cinselli\u011fi, kaosu di\u015filik simgeler. Bu nedenle, hastal\u0131k bula\u015ft\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclen [ve s\u00fcrekli olarak \u201cslime\u201d (\u00e7amur), \u201cdirt\u201d (pislik), \u201cpulp\u201d (s\u00fcpr\u00fcnt\u00fc), \u201cthe mire\u201d (\u00e7irkef), \u201cthe morass\u201d (bal\u00e7\u0131k) gibi s\u0131fatlarla an\u0131lan] kad\u0131n v\u00fccuduna ili\u015fkin yo\u011fun saplant\u0131lar ve korkular kom\u00fcnizm tehdidiyle ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r. Bu durum sava\u015ftaki askerlerde korkun\u00e7 bir \u00f6fke do\u011furdu\u011fu i\u00e7in, kendi sonlar\u0131n\u0131n gelmesini \u00f6nlemek i\u00e7in topyek\u00fbn, amans\u0131z bir temizli\u011fe giri\u015firler.<\/p>\n

Freikorps mant\u0131\u011f\u0131na g\u00f6re, \u201cd\u00fcr\u00fcst birey\u201d egemen s\u0131n\u0131fla, d\u00fczenin fallik k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcyle ve otoriteyle birlikte anar\u015fik i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 \u201c\u00e7irkefine\u201d kar\u015f\u0131 durmal\u0131d\u0131r. \u0130ki arada kalan orta s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 erke\u011fi ordu, ulus ve \u0131rk\u0131yla \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015ferek y\u00fckselmeyi hedeflemelidir. Fa\u015fistlerin erkek bedenlerinin s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131n olmay\u0131\u015f\u0131na ve \u00f6nlerindeki tehditk\u00e2r d\u00fcnyaya ili\u015fkin endi\u015felerini sadece bu \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015fmeler da\u011f\u0131tabilir. Theweleit; Elaine Morgan ve Michel Foucault\u2019ya dayanarak su ve ak\u0131nt\u0131 simgeleriyle ilgili saplant\u0131n\u0131n, en az\u0131ndan 15. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan beri kad\u0131n bedenlerinde oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclen ta\u015fk\u0131n arzunun somut ger\u00e7ekli\u011fine y\u00f6nelik bir tak\u0131nt\u0131y\u0131 ve korkuyu a\u00e7\u0131\u011fa \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ileri s\u00fcrer. Kendine \u00f6zg\u00fc cevab\u0131 soruda bulunan tumturakl\u0131 sorular\u0131ndan birini sorar: \u201cBir kad\u0131nla birle\u015fildi\u011finde, bu birlik i\u00e7inde eriyip yok olma korkusu ger\u00e7ekten arzunun nesnesinden ka\u00e7mas\u0131na ve sonra da bir \u015fiddet temsiline d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fmesine neden olabilir mi?\u201d Bu korkuyu, o ki\u015filerin \u201cherhangi bir nesne ili\u015fkisi kurmakta genel bir g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fck \u00e7ekmeleri\u201d a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan a\u00e7\u0131klar; bu durum sevme arzusunun \u00f6ld\u00fcrme arzusuna d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fmesine yol a\u00e7ar – erkek kad\u0131n\u0131 kendinden uzakla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131r (hayat\u0131n\u0131 elinden al\u0131r) ve ona fazlas\u0131yla yakla\u015f\u0131r (bir kur\u015funla, b\u0131\u00e7ak yaras\u0131yla, sopayla vb. onun i\u00e7ine girer). Freikorps askerlerinin bu \u00f6l\u00fcmc\u00fcl \u00f6fkesine de bebekken anneleriyle ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131z bir ili\u015fki kurmalar\u0131ndan kaynaklan\u0131yor diye bak\u0131l\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Theweleit \u201cburjuva ailesi\u201d olarak adland\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131 ailelerde kad\u0131nlar\u0131n bebeklerinden b\u0131km\u0131\u015f olduklar\u0131n\u0131 ve onlar\u0131 gizliden gizliye reddettiklerini, ancak bunu \u00f6rtmek i\u00e7in bezdirici duygusall\u0131k g\u00f6sterileri sergilediklerini ileri s\u00fcrer. B\u00f6ylece (erkek) bebek fiziksel ihtiya\u00e7lar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k olarak pe\u015fpe\u015fe nefret ve ilgi dalgalar\u0131na maruz kal\u0131r. \u0130htiya\u00e7lar\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131lanmayan erkek bebek kendi v\u00fccudunu \u201chazla dolu bir \u00e7eperi\u201d olan ayr\u0131, b\u00fct\u00fcn bir varl\u0131k olarak ya\u015fant\u0131layamaz. (Theweleit\u2019\u0131n yaz\u0131lar\u0131nda k\u0131z bebe\u011fe hi\u00e7 de\u011finilmez.) Bebek bu \u015fekilde bedensel s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131ndan yoksun kal\u0131nca ve tutarl\u0131 bir ego geli\u015ftiremeyince, eril kimli\u011fi asker\u00ee e\u011fitimin zor ko\u015fullar\u0131 alt\u0131nda ve \u00e7e\u015fitli cezaland\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 kurumlar\u0131n a\u015f\u0131lad\u0131\u011f\u0131 disiplin sayesinde kademe kademe ortaya \u00e7\u0131kar. S\u0131n\u0131r yoklu\u011funun yerini okul, ordu, ulus gibi totaliter \u201c\u00f6\u011f\u00fctme makineleri\u201dndeki b\u00fct\u00fcnle\u015fme al\u0131r. Beden art\u0131k silahlanm\u0131\u015f ve g\u00fc\u00e7lenmi\u015ftir; engellenmi\u015f cinsel enerjisini ve kimli\u011fini kaybetme korkusunu asker\u00ee disiplin alt\u0131nda ve sava\u015fta \u00f6l\u00fcmc\u00fcl bir bi\u00e7imde bo\u015faltaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ke\u015ffeder. Theweleit, Wilhelm Reich\u2019\u0131n psikolojik fa\u015fizm incelemelerine yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6rnek alarak, analiz etti\u011fi yaz\u0131lardaki saplant\u0131lar\u0131, korkular ve \u015fiddeti anlamak i\u00e7in, insan bedenleri \u201ccinsel ihtiya\u00e7lar\u0131yla ve potansiyeliyle uyumlu bir bi\u00e7imde\u201d i\u015fleyemedi\u011finde neler oldu\u011funa bakmak gerekti\u011fi sonucuna var\u0131r. Tan\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 verdi\u011fi fa\u015fist, \u00f6l\u00fcmc\u00fcl ve kad\u0131n d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131 erkekli\u011fin nas\u0131l de\u011fi\u015febilece\u011fine ili\u015fkin olarak ayn\u0131 \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde Reich\u00e7\u0131 -veya yar\u0131 yar\u0131ya Reich\u00e7\u0131- \u00f6neriler getirir: \u201cBelki de, z\u0131rhl\u0131 b\u00fct\u00fcnselli\u011fi i\u00e7inde kapal\u0131 kalm\u0131\u015f olan sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131 erke\u011fin bedeninde d\u0131\u015fa a\u00e7\u0131lan k\u0131s\u0131mlar ve i\u00e7 organlar da oldu\u011funu kabul etmesi yeterlidir; b\u00f6ylece fiziksel \u00e7eperinin haz verecek bi\u00e7imde uyar\u0131lmas\u0131 onu par\u00e7alanma korkusu i\u00e7inde yutulmaktan kurtar\u0131r\u201d.<\/p>\n

\u00c7ok tutulmu\u015f olmas\u0131na ve derlenen temel metinlerin \u00fcrpertici etkisine ra\u011fmen Theweleit\u2019\u0131n bu erkeklerin ne t\u00fcrden oldu\u011funu ve bunun fa\u015fizme verilen kitle deste\u011fi meselesiyle ne derece ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 oldu\u011funu inceleyen analizi hem yetersiz hem \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcnmektedir. Asl\u0131nda yazar\u0131n (ve \u00e7o\u011fu okurunun) \u00e7\u0131kartmak istedi\u011fi i\u00e7erimleri a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan daha da yetersizdir – Theweleit (bir defaya mahsus olarak) kesin bir bi\u00e7imde \u015funlar\u0131 iler s\u00fcrer: \u201cBu kitapta konu edilen erkek t\u00fcrleriyle di\u011fer b\u00fct\u00fcn erkekler aras\u0131nda kategorik bir ay\u0131r\u0131m yapmak istemiyorum. Benim incelediklerim ataerkillik buzda\u011f\u0131n\u0131n su \u00fcst\u00fcndeki b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc olu\u015fturur, ancak ger\u00e7ekte suyu so\u011futan suyun alt\u0131ndaki b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcd\u00fcr.\u201d<\/p>\n

Lutz Nicthammer\u2019\u0131n k\u0131sa ve \u00f6zl\u00fc ele\u015ftirisinde i\u015faret etti\u011fi gibi daha \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131s\u0131, Theweleit\u2019\u0131n yaz\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 kaydetti\u011fi Freikorps erkeklerinin hepsi nazi olmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r (en az\u0131ndan bir tanesi nazizme kar\u015f\u0131 kararl\u0131 bir direni\u015f sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 olmu\u015ftur) ve en s\u0131radan nazilerin \u00e7o\u011fu da Freikorps\u2019tan \u00e7\u0131kmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ayr\u0131ca, Freikorps askerlerinin hi\u00e7birisinde, bu \u201csava\u015f\u00e7\u0131 erkeklerin\u201d kendi bedenlerinden haz alma veya nesne ili\u015fkileri kurma yetene\u011finin geli\u015fimini engelleyen, duygular\u0131 karmakar\u0131\u015f\u0131k bir annenin \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc olduklar\u0131 iddias\u0131n\u0131 destekleyecek biyografik bir inceleme yap\u0131lmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Barbara Ehrenreich\u2019\u0131n kitab\u0131n \u00f6ns\u00f6z\u00fcnde belirtti\u011fi gibi -bu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f metinde rastlanmaz-, yaz\u0131lanlar \u00e7ok \u00f6zel bir zaman ve yerdeki \u00e7ok \u00f6zel bir grup \u201csava\u015f\u00e7\u0131\u201d erkekle ilgilidir – ve bu erkekler 1914-45 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda, neredeyse s\u00fcrekli ve kesintisiz bir bi\u00e7imde bir sava\u015f ortam\u0131nda bulunmu\u015flard\u0131r. Ehrenreich -yine Theweleit\u2019\u0131n aksine- \u015funlar\u0131 vurgular: \u201cSava\u015flar\u0131 erkekler yarat\u0131r tamam, ama erkekleri yaratanlar\u0131n da sava\u015flar oldu\u011funu unutmamak gerekir… her sava\u015f insan ruhunu bozar ve hayatta kalanlar\u0131n -veya onlardan baz\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n- sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131 olarak kalmalar\u0131na yol a\u00e7ar.\u201d<\/p>\n

Theweleit\u2019\u0131n fa\u015fist erkeklik tipinin psiko-sosyal olu\u015fumu \u00fczerindeki \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131nda dikkati \u00e7eken di\u011fer bir gedik de ger\u00e7ek kad\u0131nlar\u0131 -inceledi\u011fi metinlerde oldu\u011fu gibi bu metinde de- hi\u00e7 de\u011finilmemi\u015f olmas\u0131d\u0131r. Yazar erkeklere ve kad\u0131nlara daima birbirleriyle ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 olarak bak\u0131lmas\u0131 gerekti\u011fini ileri s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015fse de, incelenen d\u00f6nemde kad\u0131nlar\u0131n ne yapt\u0131klar\u0131na veya ne d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fcklerine dair hi\u00e7bir bilgi verilmez bize. Asl\u0131nda Theweleit\u2019\u0131n analizinde bir kad\u0131n asla tarih i\u00e7inde bir eyleyen veya kendi arzusunun eyleyeni olmaz. Bunu \u015f\u00f6yle a\u00e7\u0131klar: \u201cBu kad\u0131na (kendi ba\u015f\u0131na eyleme ge\u00e7mek yerine) ba\u015fkalar\u0131ndan taleplerde bulunmas\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6\u011fretmekle sa\u011flan\u0131r; bu talepler topluma veya hayata y\u00f6nelik de\u011fil erkeklere y\u00f6neliktir. Erkekten g\u00fcvenlik, para, bir ev, bir i\u015f, \u00e7ocuk talep etmeyi yeterli g\u00f6r\u00fcr\u201d.<\/p>\n

Kad\u0131n cinsel y\u00f6nden aktif de\u011fildir, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc Theweleit\u2019\u0131n s\u00f6yledi\u011fi gibi, gen\u00e7 k\u0131z, \u201ce\u011fitiminin bir par\u00e7as\u0131 olarak cinselle\u015ftirilmez.\u201d Pe\u015fine, tuhaf bir bi\u00e7imde (Gotik ve Romantik edebiyat\u0131n, daha genelinde de kitle k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn aksi y\u00f6ndeki bir\u00e7ok \u00f6rne\u011fine ra\u011fmen) \u015funlar\u0131 ekler \u201cHi\u00e7 kimse gen\u00e7 bir kad\u0131n i\u00e7in \u015fa\u015f\u0131lacak derecede gizemli, ancak korkutucu bir erkek cinselli\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc \u00e7izemez.\u201d (Heathcliff, nerelerdesin?) Kad\u0131n bir meta olarak, \u201csonu\u00e7ta en y\u00fcksek \u00fccreti veren -veya en y\u00fcksek \u00fccreti verece\u011fini vaat eden -m\u00fc\u015fteriyi sevmeye zorlan\u0131r.\u201d Ancak elbette tutsak yarat\u0131klardan, fantezi imgelerinden veya metalardan daha \u00f6tede bir \u015fey olan ger\u00e7ek kad\u0131nlar o kadar kolay \u201ce\u011fitilemezler\u201d veya \u201czorlanamazlar\u201d – Theweleit bile onlar\u0131n kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131klar\u0131 k\u00fclt\u00fcrel bask\u0131lar konusunda da daha az sa\u00e7malar. S\u00f6ylemesi ac\u0131d\u0131r, ama bu trajik d\u00f6nemde bir\u00e7ok kad\u0131n da aktif ve tutkulu birer nazi olmu\u015ftur: Fa\u015fizmin k\u00f6kenlerinin \u00f6zellikle erkek fantezilerinde, erkek bedenlerinde ve erkek eylemlerinde bulundu\u011funa ili\u015fkin al\u0131\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015f varsay\u0131mlar\u0131 sorgulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclen Theweleit\u2019\u0131n kitab\u0131nda bu ger\u00e7ek hakk\u0131nda tek bir kelime bile yoktur.<\/p>\n

Fa\u015fizmin cazibesi hakk\u0131nda bir cinsiyet analizi yap\u0131labilir, ama Theweleit\u2019\u0131nkinden daha karma\u015f\u0131kt\u0131r. Claudia Koonz, Mothers in the Fatherland (Babavatan\u0131n Analar\u0131 adl\u0131 incelemesinde nazi ya\u015fant\u0131s\u0131nda kad\u0131nlar\u0131n rol\u00fcn\u00fc belgelemeye \u00e7al\u0131\u015farak \u00f6zellikle nazi \u00f6rg\u00fctlerinde aktif \u00fcyeli\u011fe y\u00f6neltilen kad\u0131nlar\u0131 -11 milyonun \u00fczerindedir- inceler. Freikorps askerleri gibi Hitler de gen\u00e7li\u011fini sadece erkekler aras\u0131nda ge\u00e7irmi\u015fti ve s\u0131k s\u0131k \u201cnazi devriminin tamamiyle bir erkek olay\u0131 olaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131\u201d s\u00f6yleyerek \u00f6v\u00fcn\u00fcrd\u00fc. Bu do\u011frulanmad\u0131. Kad\u0131nlar ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131ndan beri Hitler\u2019in en gayretke\u015f ve en fanatik destek\u00e7isiydiler ve ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131nda \u00e7ok \u00f6nemli bir rol oynam\u0131\u015flard\u0131. (1932\u2019de Hitler\u2019e verilen oylar\u0131n yakla\u015f\u0131k yar\u0131s\u0131 kad\u0131nlar\u0131nd\u0131.)<\/p>\n

Koonz bu kad\u0131nlar\u0131n erkeklerin basit oyuncaklar\u0131 olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirtir, postallar\u0131n cazibesine kap\u0131lan mazo\u015fistler de de\u011fillerdi. Nazi ideolojisinde kad\u0131nlar\u0131n k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck g\u00f6r\u00fclmesine ve erkek \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fck\u00e7\u00fc hedefler olmas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131n, bu ideolojinin kad\u0131nlar\u0131n ayr\u0131 bir d\u00fcnyas\u0131 olmas\u0131 hakk\u0131nda yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 vurgu ve onlara -sadece ve sadece- anneler ve yuvay\u0131 kuran ki\u015filer olarak y\u00fckledi\u011fi anlam cazip gelmi\u015fti. Baz\u0131lar\u0131, ayr\u0131 bir alan olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclen kad\u0131n e\u011fitimini ve kad\u0131nlar\u0131n \u201cruhani\u201d geli\u015fimini \u00f6rg\u00fctleyerek kendi iktidar ve n\u00fcfuzlar\u0131n\u0131n artt\u0131rmay\u0131 da ba\u015farabilmi\u015fti. Kad\u0131nlarla erkeklerin ayr\u0131 d\u00fcnyalar\u0131 oldu\u011funa duyulan inan\u00e7, bu nazi kad\u0131nlar\u0131n di\u011fer politik partilerdeki kad\u0131nlara k\u0131yasla erkeklerden daha \u00f6zerk olmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bir\u00e7o\u011fu Hitler\u2019in koyu milliyet\u00e7ili\u011fini ve otoritercili\u011fini payla\u015f\u0131yordu. Hitler\u2019in \u0131rksal yenilenme ve asker\u00ee zafer hakk\u0131ndaki s\u00f6ylevlerinden onlar da esinleniyordu: \u201cKad\u0131nlar\u0131n ayr\u0131 d\u00fcnyas\u0131 i\u00e7indeki annelik sevgisi kad\u0131nlara k\u00f6t\u00fcl\u00fc\u011fe ba\u011f\u0131\u015f\u0131kl\u0131k kazand\u0131rmak \u015f\u00f6yle dursun, kendilerini F\u00fchrer\u2019in anlatt\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u2018ari\u2019 gelece\u011fe adamaya te\u015fvik etmi\u015f ve kad\u0131nlar\u0131n kendi Lebensraum\u2019lar\u0131nda (Ya\u015fam alan\u0131) h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcrme olanaklar\u0131n\u0131 artt\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.\u201d<\/p>\n

Hitler\u2019in vejeteryan, a\u011fz\u0131na sigara-i\u00e7ki s\u00fcrmeyen en yak\u0131n ve en i\u011fren\u00e7 yard\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131 da hi\u00e7bir anlamda Theweleit\u2019\u0131n sertle\u015fmi\u015f, kad\u0131nlardan nefret eden katillerine benzemiyordu. Goering ve Eichmann kan g\u00f6rmeye dayanam\u0131yordu; Himmler iki kad\u0131n\u0131n infaz\u0131na tan\u0131kl\u0131k ederken \u00e7\u0131\u011fl\u0131k atm\u0131\u015ft\u0131 ve neredeyse bay\u0131l\u0131yordu. Koonz\u2019a g\u00f6re Auschwitz, Treblinka ve Dachau kamplar\u0131nda \u00e7ocuklar\u0131, kad\u0131nlar\u0131 ve erkekleri d\u00fczenli bir bi\u00e7imde katletme i\u015fini denetlemekle g\u00f6revlendirilen erkeklerin genelde kar\u0131lar\u0131 ve \u00e7ocuklar\u0131yla \u00e7ok yak\u0131n ili\u015fkileri vard\u0131: \u201cG\u00f6revlerini\u201d ve kar\u0131lar\u0131yla \u00e7ocuklar\u0131na duyduklar\u0131 sevgiyi birbirinden ayr\u0131 tutabiliyorlard\u0131. Toplumsal cinsiyet kimliklerinin \u00e7eli\u015fkili do\u011fas\u0131na \u0131\u015f\u0131k tutan Koonz, k\u00f6rlemesine itaatk\u00e2r, h\u0131rsl\u0131 ve zay\u0131f olmalar\u0131 gereken ve b\u00f6yle de olan Hitler yanda\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n ideal modelinin \u201cerkeksi\u201d de\u011fil de \u201ckad\u0131ns\u0131\u201d olarak g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm\u00fcz duygular \u00fczerine kuruldu\u011funa i\u015faret eder: \u201cHitler, erkekleri toplumun duygusal ketlerinden kurtararak onlar\u0131 itaatk\u00e2rl\u0131klar\u0131, hatta dalkavukluklar\u0131 i\u00e7inde \u2018kad\u0131ns\u0131\u2019 hale getirdi.\u201d Dahas\u0131, Hitler korkutucu derecede ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 olan s\u00f6ylev taktiklerinin s\u0131rr\u0131n\u0131 eski bir arkada\u015f\u0131na a\u00e7arken, \u201ckitlelerin do\u011fas\u0131ndaki kad\u0131ns\u0131 \u00f6zellik\u201d dedi\u011fi \u015feye seslendi\u011finin bilincindeydi: \u201cKalabal\u0131\u011f\u0131n kad\u0131na benzemesi yan\u0131nda ayn\u0131 zamanda kad\u0131nlar dinleyicinin en \u00f6nemli b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc olu\u015fturur. Genelde kad\u0131nlar ba\u015f\u0131 \u00e7eker, onlar\u0131 \u00e7ocuklar izler ve sonunda da…babalar.\u201d<\/p>\n

\u015eu s\u0131ralarda Nazi Almanya\u2019s\u0131nda kad\u0131nlar\u0131n rol\u00fc konusunda yayg\u0131n tart\u0131\u015fmalar yap\u0131lmaktad\u0131r ve di\u011fer kad\u0131n tarih\u00e7iler kad\u0131nlar\u0131n nazi propagandas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 erkeklerden daha \u00e7ok direnmi\u015f olduklar\u0131n\u0131 ve Almanya\u2019da Yahudilere yap\u0131lan sald\u0131r\u0131larda \u00f6nemli bir rol oynamad\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 ileri s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015flerdir. Yine de, Theweleit\u2019\u0131n s\u00f6ylediklerinin tersine, fa\u015fizmin b\u00fcy\u00fcs\u00fcne kap\u0131lan \u201cerkekli\u011fin\u201d sadece, temelinde g\u00fcvensiz, kad\u0131n d\u00fc\u015fman\u0131, sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131 bir \u201cerkeklik\u201d olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 -ve bu nedenle de fa\u015fizmin veya daha genelinde sa\u011f kanat ideolojisinin cazibesinin tatmink\u00e2r bir a\u00e7\u0131klamas\u0131n\u0131 veremeyece\u011fi- a\u00e7\u0131k\u00e7a g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr.<\/p>\n

Koonz\u2019un da net bir bi\u00e7imde belirtti\u011fi gibi I. D\u00fcnya Sava\u015f\u0131\u2019ndan sonra t\u00fcm Almanya\u2019da geleneksel cinsiyet d\u00fczenlemelerinin erozyona u\u011framas\u0131n\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck endi\u015felere yol a\u00e7t\u0131\u011f\u0131 do\u011frudur; nazizmin y\u00fckseli\u015finin ve ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n temelinde bu yatmaktayd\u0131. Alman kad\u0131nlar\u0131 di\u011fer Avrupa \u00fclkelerindeki ve ABD\u2019deki kad\u0131nlardan daha \u00f6nce oy hakk\u0131 elde etmi\u015flerdi. Di\u011fer Bat\u0131 \u00fclkelerine k\u0131yasla daha \u00e7ok kad\u0131n e\u011fitim g\u00f6r\u00fcyordu, daha \u00e7ok kad\u0131n i\u015fe girmi\u015fti ve kriz d\u00f6neminde erkekler i\u015ften \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lmaya ba\u015flay\u0131ncaya kadar bu i\u015flerde kalacaklard\u0131; genel olarak politikada ve k\u00fclt\u00fcrel hayatta daha aktif rol al\u0131yorlard\u0131. Ancak kad\u0131nlar\u0131n g\u00f6receli serbestlikleri asker\u00ee yenilginin bir sonucuydu: Ekonomik kaos, (bazen a\u00e7l\u0131k boyutlar\u0131na varan) yokluk, toplumun oturmam\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131, utan\u00e7 ve umutsuzluk t\u00fcm Alman halk\u0131n\u0131 etkiliyordu. Erich Fromm\u2019un kriz d\u00f6neminden hemen \u00f6nce yap\u0131lan bir ara\u015ft\u0131rmadan kalkarak bildirdi\u011fi gibi, \u201ckad\u0131n sorunu\u201d g\u00fcn\u00fcn en tart\u0131\u015f\u0131lan konular\u0131ndan biriydi. Erkekler gibi kad\u0131nlar da, kad\u0131nlar\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131 ve \u201cserbestli\u011fini\u201d \u00e7o\u011fu toplumsal sorunun, -her yerde do\u011fum oran\u0131n\u0131n d\u00fc\u015fmesinin, erkeklerde i\u015fsizlik oran\u0131n\u0131n h\u0131zla y\u00fckselmesinin, erkeklerin \u201ckuvvetten d\u00fc\u015fmelerinin\u201d, kad\u0131nlar\u0131n \u201cbencille\u015fmelerinin\u201d ve her yerde cinsel ahl\u00e2ks\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ba\u015fg\u00f6stermesinin nedeni olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcyorlard\u0131. \u00c7o\u011funluk k\u00f6t\u00fc \u00fccretle \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve ailelerini ge\u00e7indiremedi\u011fi i\u00e7in, kad\u0131nlar da tatmin edici olmayan \u00f6zg\u00fcrle\u015fmelerinden \u201ckurtulmak\u201d istiyor, yurtlar\u0131nda ve yuvalar\u0131nda g\u00fcvencede olduklar\u0131 idealle\u015ftirilmi\u015f mitik ge\u00e7mi\u015flerine geri d\u00f6nme \u00f6zlemi duyuyorlard\u0131. <\/p>\n

Nazilerin kad\u0131nlara evdeki, erkeklere evin d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndaki yerlerini geri verme vaadi her iki cinse de cazip gelmi\u015fti. A\u015f\u0131r\u0131 yokluk zamanlar\u0131, geleneksel rollerin erozyona u\u011framas\u0131 ve de\u011fi\u015fmesiyle de birle\u015fince, g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde oldu\u011fu gibi ge\u00e7mi\u015fte de s\u0131k s\u0131k tutucu ak\u0131mlara olan ilginin artmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde, kad\u0131nlar ilerleme yolunda sorunlardan ve aksiliklerden hi\u00e7 kurtulamam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r – kad\u0131nlarla erkekler aras\u0131ndaki gerginlik artarken, kad\u0131nlar da kendi aralar\u0131nda b\u00f6l\u00fcnm\u00fc\u015flerdir. Bu cazibeyi \u00f6zellikle, hatta \u00f6ncelikle erkeklerin ve kad\u0131nlar\u0131n psikolojileri a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan anlayabilece\u011fimizi sanm\u0131yorum. Ruhsal olan ile toplumsal olan aras\u0131ndaki ba\u011f her zaman \u00f6nemli ve incelenmesi gereken bir ba\u011f olmu\u015fsa da Theweleit\u2019\u0131nki gibi analizlerde ileri s\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc kadar dolays\u0131z de\u011fildir. Militarizme ba\u011fl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 da sadece bir a\u015f\u0131r\u0131-erkeklik bi\u00e7imi olarak anlamam\u0131z m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fildir. Yuonne Roberts, 1984\u2019de Falkland Adalar\u0131\u2019nda herkesten daha fazla u\u00e7ak d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcrerek \u201ckahraman\u201d gibi kar\u015f\u0131lanan \u0130ngiliz avc\u0131 u\u00e7a\u011f\u0131 pilotu David Morgan ile eve d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnde g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fme yapmadan \u00f6nce, belirli bir erkeklik fikri sergileyip sergilemedi\u011fini veya erkek egemen bir toplumun be\u011fenisini kazanma iste\u011fi i\u00e7inde olup olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 merak ediyordu. Kabaday\u0131l\u0131ktan tamamen uzak, babas\u0131na hep yak\u0131n olmu\u015f (\u201cdaha \u00e7ok bir karde\u015f gibi\u201d), al\u00e7akg\u00f6n\u00fcll\u00fc ve hepsinden \u00f6nemlisi tekrar eve d\u00f6n\u00fcp kar\u0131s\u0131 ve \u00e7ocuklar\u0131yla m\u00fcmk\u00fcn oldu\u011funca \u00e7ok zaman ge\u00e7irmekten \u00e7ok mutlu olan bir adamla kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131: \u201cArt\u0131k arkama yaslan\u0131p aile hayat\u0131n\u0131n tad\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7\u0131karmazsam \u00f6nemli bir \u015fey kaybedece\u011fimin bilincindeyim. Burada bunu kesinlikle fark\u0131na vard\u0131m\u201d diyordu Morgan. Avc\u0131 u\u00e7a\u011f\u0131 pilotlu\u011fu i\u015fini seven ve sava\u015f\u0131n \u201ctek bir g\u00fcn\u00fcn\u00fc bile ka\u00e7\u0131rmak istemeyen\u201d bu adam\u0131n s\u0131radan bir hayalg\u00fcc\u00fc yoksunu oldu\u011fu anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131yordu: \u201c\u00d6l\u00fcm beni rahats\u0131z etmiyor… her \u015fey olaca\u011f\u0131na var\u0131r… (bombalar\u0131 kullanmaktan dolay\u0131) hi\u00e7 vicdan azab\u0131 duymuyorum\u201d \u00d6l\u00fcmle kar\u015f\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131ya geldi\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde, hayatta kal\u0131rsa faturalar\u0131 daha az dert etmeye karar vermi\u015fti yaln\u0131zca. Burada \u0131l\u0131ml\u0131, ancak hayalg\u00fcc\u00fcnden yoksun, kendi s\u00f6zleriyle \u201cona ne \u00f6\u011fretilmi\u015fse onu yapmak\u201d isteyen bir erkekle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z anla\u015f\u0131lmaktad\u0131r.
<\/span><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

\u201cErkeklik ve kad\u0131nl\u0131k tarihsel zamana ve yere \u00f6zg\u00fc olu\u015fumlard\u0131r. \u0130deolojiler, toplumsal kurumlar ve pratikler i\u00e7inde s\u00fcrekli olarak bi\u00e7imlendirilen, kar\u015f\u0131 konulan, yeniden i\u015flenen ve yeniden onaylanan kategorilerdir. Farkl\u0131 yorumlar\u0131, genelde b\u00fcnle\u015fmi\u015f gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnen bir \u2018sa\u011fduyu\u2019 taraf\u0131ndan \u00f6rt\u00fclse bile, bu \u00e7eli\u015fkili tan\u0131mlar \u00fczerinde daima tart\u0131\u015fma ve de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fe gitme olana\u011f\u0131 vard\u0131r. Toplumsal cinsiyet s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 ihl\u00e2l eden erkekler de […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[176],"tags":[],"class_list":{"0":"post-393","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","6":"category-kadin-a-dair"},"yoast_head":"\nYar\u0131\u015fan Erkeklikler, Erkeklik-Erkek \u0130deali (1.B\u00f6l\u00fcm) | Lynne Segal - narteks.net<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"tr_TR\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Yar\u0131\u015fan Erkeklikler, Erkeklik-Erkek \u0130deali (1.B\u00f6l\u00fcm) | Lynne Segal\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"\u201cErkeklik ve kad\u0131nl\u0131k tarihsel zamana ve yere \u00f6zg\u00fc olu\u015fumlard\u0131r. \u0130deolojiler, toplumsal kurumlar ve pratikler i\u00e7inde s\u00fcrekli olarak bi\u00e7imlendirilen, kar\u015f\u0131 konulan, yeniden i\u015flenen ve yeniden onaylanan kategorilerdir. Farkl\u0131 yorumlar\u0131, genelde b\u00fcnle\u015fmi\u015f gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnen bir \u2018sa\u011fduyu\u2019 taraf\u0131ndan \u00f6rt\u00fclse bile, bu \u00e7eli\u015fkili tan\u0131mlar \u00fczerinde daima tart\u0131\u015fma ve de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fe gitme olana\u011f\u0131 vard\u0131r. Toplumsal cinsiyet s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 ihl\u00e2l eden erkekler de […]\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"narteks.net\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2009-03-10T22:09:43+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/narteks.png\" \/>\n\t<meta property=\"og:image:width\" content=\"300\" \/>\n\t<meta property=\"og:image:height\" content=\"90\" \/>\n\t<meta property=\"og:image:type\" content=\"image\/png\" \/>\n<meta name=\"author\" content=\"Tar\u0131k\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:creator\" content=\"@narteks\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:site\" content=\"@narteks\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Yazan:\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"Tar\u0131k\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:label2\" content=\"Tahmini okuma s\u00fcresi\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data2\" content=\"41 dakika\" \/>\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\">{\"@context\":\"https:\/\/schema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"Article\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/#article\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/\"},\"author\":{\"name\":\"Tar\u0131k\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#\/schema\/person\/61f37d9834294b72d31d274e7ed79bca\"},\"headline\":\"Yar\u0131\u015fan Erkeklikler, Erkeklik-Erkek \u0130deali (1.B\u00f6l\u00fcm) | Lynne Segal\",\"datePublished\":\"2009-03-10T22:09:43+00:00\",\"mainEntityOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/\"},\"wordCount\":8155,\"commentCount\":0,\"publisher\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#organization\"},\"articleSection\":[\"Kad\u0131na Dair\"],\"inLanguage\":\"tr\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"CommentAction\",\"name\":\"Comment\",\"target\":[\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/#respond\"]}]},{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/\",\"name\":\"Yar\u0131\u015fan Erkeklikler, Erkeklik-Erkek \u0130deali (1.B\u00f6l\u00fcm) | Lynne Segal - narteks.net\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#website\"},\"datePublished\":\"2009-03-10T22:09:43+00:00\",\"breadcrumb\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/#breadcrumb\"},\"inLanguage\":\"tr\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"ReadAction\",\"target\":[\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/\"]}]},{\"@type\":\"BreadcrumbList\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/#breadcrumb\",\"itemListElement\":[{\"@type\":\"ListItem\",\"position\":1,\"name\":\"Anasayfa\",\"item\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/\"},{\"@type\":\"ListItem\",\"position\":2,\"name\":\"Yar\u0131\u015fan Erkeklikler, Erkeklik-Erkek \u0130deali (1.B\u00f6l\u00fcm) | Lynne Segal\"}]},{\"@type\":\"WebSite\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#website\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/\",\"name\":\"narteks.net\",\"description\":\"K\u00fclt\u00fcr Sanat Edebiyat Felsefe\",\"publisher\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#organization\"},\"alternateName\":\"K\u00fclt\u00fcr Sanat Edebiyat Felsefe\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"SearchAction\",\"target\":{\"@type\":\"EntryPoint\",\"urlTemplate\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/?s={search_term_string}\"},\"query-input\":{\"@type\":\"PropertyValueSpecification\",\"valueRequired\":true,\"valueName\":\"search_term_string\"}}],\"inLanguage\":\"tr\"},{\"@type\":\"Organization\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#organization\",\"name\":\"narteks.net\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/\",\"logo\":{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"tr\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#\/schema\/logo\/image\/\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/narteks.png\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/narteks.png\",\"width\":300,\"height\":90,\"caption\":\"narteks.net\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#\/schema\/logo\/image\/\"},\"sameAs\":[\"https:\/\/x.com\/narteks\",\"https:\/\/instagram.com\/narteksnet\"]},{\"@type\":\"Person\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#\/schema\/person\/61f37d9834294b72d31d274e7ed79bca\",\"name\":\"Tar\u0131k\",\"image\":{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"tr\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#\/schema\/person\/image\/\",\"url\":\"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/50865afb55632c4ae467e0af0930f6510aa2297d8014be502a55b14f3b7550cf?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/50865afb55632c4ae467e0af0930f6510aa2297d8014be502a55b14f3b7550cf?s=96&d=mm&r=g\",\"caption\":\"Tar\u0131k\"},\"sameAs\":[\"http:\/\/narteks.net\"],\"url\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/author\/narbak\/\"}]}<\/script>\n<!-- \/ Yoast SEO Premium plugin. -->","yoast_head_json":{"title":"Yar\u0131\u015fan Erkeklikler, Erkeklik-Erkek \u0130deali (1.B\u00f6l\u00fcm) | Lynne Segal - narteks.net","robots":{"index":"index","follow":"follow","max-snippet":"max-snippet:-1","max-image-preview":"max-image-preview:large","max-video-preview":"max-video-preview:-1"},"canonical":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/","og_locale":"tr_TR","og_type":"article","og_title":"Yar\u0131\u015fan Erkeklikler, Erkeklik-Erkek \u0130deali (1.B\u00f6l\u00fcm) | Lynne Segal","og_description":"\u201cErkeklik ve kad\u0131nl\u0131k tarihsel zamana ve yere \u00f6zg\u00fc olu\u015fumlard\u0131r. \u0130deolojiler, toplumsal kurumlar ve pratikler i\u00e7inde s\u00fcrekli olarak bi\u00e7imlendirilen, kar\u015f\u0131 konulan, yeniden i\u015flenen ve yeniden onaylanan kategorilerdir. Farkl\u0131 yorumlar\u0131, genelde b\u00fcnle\u015fmi\u015f gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnen bir \u2018sa\u011fduyu\u2019 taraf\u0131ndan \u00f6rt\u00fclse bile, bu \u00e7eli\u015fkili tan\u0131mlar \u00fczerinde daima tart\u0131\u015fma ve de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fe gitme olana\u011f\u0131 vard\u0131r. Toplumsal cinsiyet s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 ihl\u00e2l eden erkekler de […]","og_url":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/","og_site_name":"narteks.net","article_published_time":"2009-03-10T22:09:43+00:00","og_image":[{"width":300,"height":90,"url":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/narteks.png","type":"image\/png"}],"author":"Tar\u0131k","twitter_card":"summary_large_image","twitter_creator":"@narteks","twitter_site":"@narteks","twitter_misc":{"Yazan:":"Tar\u0131k","Tahmini okuma s\u00fcresi":"41 dakika"},"schema":{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@graph":[{"@type":"Article","@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/#article","isPartOf":{"@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/"},"author":{"name":"Tar\u0131k","@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#\/schema\/person\/61f37d9834294b72d31d274e7ed79bca"},"headline":"Yar\u0131\u015fan Erkeklikler, Erkeklik-Erkek \u0130deali (1.B\u00f6l\u00fcm) | Lynne Segal","datePublished":"2009-03-10T22:09:43+00:00","mainEntityOfPage":{"@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/"},"wordCount":8155,"commentCount":0,"publisher":{"@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#organization"},"articleSection":["Kad\u0131na Dair"],"inLanguage":"tr","potentialAction":[{"@type":"CommentAction","name":"Comment","target":["https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/#respond"]}]},{"@type":"WebPage","@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/","url":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/","name":"Yar\u0131\u015fan Erkeklikler, Erkeklik-Erkek \u0130deali (1.B\u00f6l\u00fcm) | Lynne Segal - narteks.net","isPartOf":{"@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#website"},"datePublished":"2009-03-10T22:09:43+00:00","breadcrumb":{"@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/#breadcrumb"},"inLanguage":"tr","potentialAction":[{"@type":"ReadAction","target":["https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/"]}]},{"@type":"BreadcrumbList","@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2009\/03\/11\/yarisan-erkeklikler-erkeklik-erkek-ideali-1bolum-lynne-segal\/#breadcrumb","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Anasayfa","item":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Yar\u0131\u015fan Erkeklikler, Erkeklik-Erkek \u0130deali (1.B\u00f6l\u00fcm) | Lynne Segal"}]},{"@type":"WebSite","@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#website","url":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/","name":"narteks.net","description":"K\u00fclt\u00fcr Sanat Edebiyat Felsefe","publisher":{"@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#organization"},"alternateName":"K\u00fclt\u00fcr Sanat Edebiyat Felsefe","potentialAction":[{"@type":"SearchAction","target":{"@type":"EntryPoint","urlTemplate":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/?s={search_term_string}"},"query-input":{"@type":"PropertyValueSpecification","valueRequired":true,"valueName":"search_term_string"}}],"inLanguage":"tr"},{"@type":"Organization","@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#organization","name":"narteks.net","url":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"tr","@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#\/schema\/logo\/image\/","url":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/narteks.png","contentUrl":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/narteks.png","width":300,"height":90,"caption":"narteks.net"},"image":{"@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#\/schema\/logo\/image\/"},"sameAs":["https:\/\/x.com\/narteks","https:\/\/instagram.com\/narteksnet"]},{"@type":"Person","@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#\/schema\/person\/61f37d9834294b72d31d274e7ed79bca","name":"Tar\u0131k","image":{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"tr","@id":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#\/schema\/person\/image\/","url":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/50865afb55632c4ae467e0af0930f6510aa2297d8014be502a55b14f3b7550cf?s=96&d=mm&r=g","contentUrl":"https:\/\/secure.gravatar.com\/avatar\/50865afb55632c4ae467e0af0930f6510aa2297d8014be502a55b14f3b7550cf?s=96&d=mm&r=g","caption":"Tar\u0131k"},"sameAs":["http:\/\/narteks.net"],"url":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/author\/narbak\/"}]}},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/393","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=393"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/393\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=393"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=393"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=393"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}