{"id":467,"date":"2010-03-12T01:00:00","date_gmt":"2010-03-11T22:00:00","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/localhost\/wordpress\/2010\/03\/12\/felsefe-ve-din-alan-woods-ted-grant\/"},"modified":"2010-03-12T01:00:00","modified_gmt":"2010-03-11T22:00:00","slug":"felsefe-ve-din-alan-woods-ted-grant","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2010\/03\/12\/felsefe-ve-din-alan-woods-ted-grant\/","title":{"rendered":"Felsefe ve Din | Alan Woods – Ted Grant"},"content":{"rendered":"

\"dini\"<\/span><\/strong><\/h2>\n

Felsefeye \u0130htiyac\u0131m\u0131z Var m\u0131?
Biz ba\u015flamadan \u00f6nce, siz \u015funu sorma iste\u011fi duyuyor olabilirsiniz: \u201cEee, ne olmu\u015f yani?\u201d Bilimin ve felsefenin karma\u015f\u0131k sorunlar\u0131n\u0131 dert etmemiz ger\u00e7ekten gerekli mi? B\u00f6yle bir soruya iki ayr\u0131 cevap verilebilir. E\u011fer kastedilen: g\u00fcndelik ya\u015fant\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmek i\u00e7in b\u00f6yle \u015feyleri bilmemizin gerekip gerekmedi\u011fi ise, yan\u0131t a\u00e7\u0131k olarak hay\u0131rd\u0131r. Ama e\u011fer i\u00e7inde ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z d\u00fcnyay\u0131 ve do\u011fada, toplumda ve kendi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce bi\u00e7imimizde i\u015flemekte olan temel s\u00fcre\u00e7leri ak\u0131lc\u0131 bir \u015fekilde kavramak istiyorsak, o zaman mesele bamba\u015fka bir \u0131\u015f\u0131k alt\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr.<\/p>\n

Gariptir ama, herkesin bir \u201cfelsefesi\u201d vard\u0131r. Bir felsefe d\u00fcnyaya bir bak\u0131\u015f tarz\u0131d\u0131r. Hepimiz do\u011fruyu yanl\u0131\u015ftan, iyiyi k\u00f6t\u00fcden nas\u0131l ay\u0131raca\u011f\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 bildi\u011fimize inan\u0131r\u0131z. Oysa bu konular tarihin en b\u00fcy\u00fck kafalar\u0131n\u0131 me\u015fgul eden olduk\u00e7a karma\u015f\u0131k konulard\u0131r. Eski Yugoslavya\u2019da karde\u015flerin birbirini bo\u011fazlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 sava\u015f, kitlesel i\u015fsizli\u011fin yeniden peyda olmas\u0131, Ruanda\u2019daki katliam gibi k\u00f6t\u00fc olaylarla kar\u015f\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131ya geldi\u011finde bir\u00e7ok insan b\u00f6yle \u015feyleri anlamad\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 itiraf ederler ve \u00e7o\u011funlukla \u201cinsan do\u011fas\u0131na\u201d bulan\u0131k g\u00f6ndermeler yapma ihtiyac\u0131 duyarlar. Ama, t\u00fcm hastal\u0131klar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n kayna\u011f\u0131 olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclen ve ebediyen de\u011fi\u015fmeyece\u011fi varsay\u0131lan bu gizemli insan do\u011fas\u0131 nedir? Bu, dinsel bir kafa yap\u0131s\u0131na sahip olunmad\u0131k\u00e7a, ki b\u00f6yle olanlar Tanr\u0131n\u0131n bilgeli\u011fiyle bizi b\u00f6yle yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylerler, pek az insan\u0131n cevap vermeye kalk\u0131\u015faca\u011f\u0131 derin bir felsefi sorudur. Kendi yaratt\u0131klar\u0131na b\u00f6yle oyunlar oynayan bir Varl\u0131\u011fa neden tap\u0131nmak gerekti\u011fi ayr\u0131 bir sorundur.<\/p>\n

Hi\u00e7bir felsefelerinin olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 inatla savunanlar yan\u0131lmaktad\u0131rlar. Do\u011fa bo\u015fluktan nefret eder. Tutarl\u0131 bi\u00e7imde i\u015flenmi\u015f felsefi bir bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan yoksun olanlar ka\u00e7\u0131n\u0131lmaz olarak i\u00e7inde ya\u015fad\u0131klar\u0131 toplumun ve \u00e7evrenin d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ve \u00f6nyarg\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 yans\u0131t\u0131rlar. Tart\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z ba\u011flamda bunun anlam\u0131, onlar\u0131n kafalar\u0131n\u0131n, mevcut toplumun \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131n\u0131 ve ahl\u00e2k\u0131n\u0131 sadakatle yans\u0131tan gazetelerden, televizyondan, okul dersliklerinin k\u00fcrs\u00fclerinden emdikleri d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerle t\u0131ka basa dolu oldu\u011fudur.<\/p>\n

Bir\u00e7ok insan \u00e7o\u011funlukla tak\u0131l\u0131p d\u00fc\u015fmeden hayat\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmeyi ba\u015far\u0131r, ta ki b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00e7apl\u0131 bir ani de\u011fi\u015fim, onlar\u0131 i\u00e7inde b\u00fcy\u00fcd\u00fckleri d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ve de\u011ferleri yeniden d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeye zorlayana kadar. Toplumun krizi onlar\u0131 daha \u00f6nce emin olduklar\u0131 bir\u00e7ok \u015feyi sorgulamaya zorlar. B\u00f6yle zamanlarda uzak g\u00f6r\u00fcnen d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceler birdenbire \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 bi\u00e7imde yak\u0131n hale gelir. Hayat\u0131 anlams\u0131z bir dizi tesad\u00fcf olarak ya da d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesiz bir rutin olarak anlamak istemeyen herkes, felsefeyle, yani g\u00fcndelik varolu\u015fun dolays\u0131z sorunlar\u0131n\u0131n \u00fczerine \u00e7\u0131kan d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceyle me\u015fgul olmak zorundad\u0131r. Ancak bu yolla kendimizi, kendi kaderini kontrol alt\u0131na almak isteyen ve alabilen bilin\u00e7li insan varl\u0131klar\u0131 olarak potansiyelimizi ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmeye ba\u015flayaca\u011f\u0131m\u0131z bir y\u00fcksekli\u011fe \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131r\u0131z.<\/p>\n

Hayatta bir de\u011fer ta\u015f\u0131yan her \u015feyin \u00e7aba gerektirdi\u011fini genel olarak herkes bilir. Felsefeyi incelemek tabiat\u0131 gere\u011fi baz\u0131 zorluklar i\u00e7erir, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc felsefe s\u0131radan deneyimler d\u00fcnyas\u0131ndan \u00e7ok uzak meselelerle u\u011fra\u015f\u0131r. Kullan\u0131lan terminoloji bile zorluklar \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131r, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc kelimeler ortalama kullan\u0131mdaki anlamlar\u0131na her zaman tekab\u00fcl etmeyen bir tarzda kullan\u0131l\u0131rlar. Ama ayn\u0131 \u015fey her uzmanl\u0131k konusu i\u00e7in do\u011frudur, psikanalizden m\u00fchendisli\u011fe kadar.<\/p>\n

\u0130kinci engel daha ciddidir. Marx ve Engels\u2019in diyalektik materyalizm \u00fczerine kendi eserlerini ilk kez yay\u0131nlad\u0131klar\u0131 ge\u00e7en y\u00fczy\u0131lda, onlar okurlar\u0131n\u0131n bir\u00e7o\u011funun, en az\u0131ndan i\u015f g\u00f6r\u00fcr bir klasik felsefe \u2013Hegel dahil\u2013 bilgileri oldu\u011funu varsayabiliyorlard\u0131. Oysa g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde b\u00f6yle bir varsay\u0131mda bulunmak imk\u00e2ns\u0131zd\u0131r. Evrenin ve hayat\u0131n do\u011fas\u0131 \u00fczerine spek\u00fclasyonun oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131 rol bilimler taraf\u0131ndan ele ge\u00e7irildi\u011finden, felsefe daha \u00f6nce tuttu\u011fu yeri art\u0131k tutmamaktad\u0131r. G\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc radyo teleskoplar\u0131 ve uzay ara\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n elde bulunmas\u0131 g\u00fcne\u015f sistemimizin do\u011fas\u0131 ve b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ile ilgili san\u0131lar\u0131 gereksiz hale getirdi. \u0130nsan ruhunun gizemleri bile n\u00f6robiyolojinin ve psikolojinin ilerlemesiyle ad\u0131m ad\u0131m ayd\u0131nl\u0131\u011fa kavu\u015fuyor.<\/p>\n

Toplumsal bilimler alan\u0131nda durum \u00e7ok daha az tatmin edicidir, zira do\u011fru bilgi edinme arzusu, bu alanda, insanlar\u0131n ya\u015fam\u0131na h\u00fckmeden g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc maddi \u00e7\u0131karlara s\u0131k s\u0131k toslar. Marx ve Engels\u2019in toplumsal ve tarihsel analiz ve ekonomi alanlar\u0131nda kaydetti\u011fi b\u00fcy\u00fck ilerlemeler bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fman\u0131n kapsam\u0131 d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndad\u0131r. En ba\u015f\u0131ndan itibaren s\u00fcrekli olarak ve s\u0131k\u00e7a maruz kald\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015firret sald\u0131r\u0131lara ra\u011fmen Marksizmin toplumsal alandaki teorilerinin modern toplumsal bilimlerin geli\u015fiminde belirleyici fakt\u00f6r oldu\u011funa i\u015faret etmek yeterlidir. Canl\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131na gelince, bunun kan\u0131t\u0131, sald\u0131r\u0131lar\u0131n s\u00fcrmekle kalmay\u0131p zaman ilerledik\u00e7e yo\u011funluk bak\u0131m\u0131ndan da art\u0131\u015f e\u011filimi g\u00f6steriyor olmas\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Ge\u00e7mi\u015f \u00e7a\u011flarda bilimin geli\u015fimi, ki her zaman \u00fcretici g\u00fc\u00e7lerin geli\u015fimiyle s\u0131k\u0131 s\u0131k\u0131ya ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 olmu\u015ftur, insanlar\u0131n i\u00e7inde ya\u015fad\u0131klar\u0131 d\u00fcnyay\u0131 anlamalar\u0131na izin verecek kadar y\u00fcksek bir d\u00fczeye ula\u015fmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Bilimsel bilginin ya da onun maddi ara\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n mevcut olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 devirlerde insanlar, d\u00fcnyay\u0131 anlamalar\u0131na ve onun \u00fczerinde egemenlik kurmalar\u0131na yard\u0131mc\u0131 olabilecek ellerindeki tek araca, yani insan zihnine bel ba\u011flamaya zorland\u0131lar. D\u00fcnyay\u0131 anlama m\u00fccadelesi, insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n kendisini salt hayvani varolu\u015f d\u00fczeyinden koparma, do\u011fan\u0131n k\u00f6r g\u00fc\u00e7leri \u00fczerinde hakimiyet kazanma ve kelimenin hukuki de\u011fil ger\u00e7ek anlam\u0131nda \u00f6zg\u00fcrle\u015fme m\u00fccadelesiyle s\u0131k\u0131 s\u0131k\u0131ya \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015fmi\u015ftir. Bu m\u00fccadele t\u00fcm insanl\u0131k tarihinin \u00fczerinden k\u0131z\u0131l bir \u015ferit gibi ge\u00e7er.
Dinin Rol\u00fc<\/p>\n

\u201c\u0130nsan pek mecnundur. Bir sinek kurdunu nas\u0131l yarataca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 bilmez, ama gider d\u00fczineyle Tanr\u0131 yarat\u0131r.\u201d (Montaigne)<\/p>\n

\u201cT\u00fcm mitoloji, do\u011fa g\u00fc\u00e7lerine, hayal g\u00fcc\u00fcnde ve hayal g\u00fcc\u00fcyle bask\u0131n \u00e7\u0131kar, hakim olur ve \u015fekil verir; bu bak\u0131mdan onlar \u00fczerinde ger\u00e7ek hakimiyetin \u00e7\u0131k\u0131p geli\u015fiyle birlikte kaybolup gider.\u201d (Marx)<\/p>\n

Hayvanlar\u0131n dini yoktur ve ge\u00e7mi\u015fte bunun insanlar ve \u201cyarat\u0131klar\u201d aras\u0131ndaki as\u0131l fark\u0131 olu\u015fturdu\u011fu s\u00f6ylenirdi. Ama bu yaln\u0131zca insanlar\u0131n kelimenin tam anlam\u0131nda bilince sahip oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylemenin ba\u015fka bir yoludur. Son y\u0131llarda \u0130nsan\u0131n \u00f6zel ve biricik bir Mahl\u00fbk oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesine kar\u015f\u0131 bir tepki olu\u015fmu\u015ftur. \u0130nsan\u0131n hayvandan geli\u015fmi\u015f olmas\u0131 ve pek \u00e7ok \u00f6nemli noktada hayvan niteli\u011fini bar\u0131nd\u0131rmas\u0131 anlam\u0131nda bu \u015f\u00fcphesiz do\u011frudur. Hayvanlarla bir\u00e7ok bedensel i\u015flevi payla\u015fmak bir yana, insanlar ve \u015fempanzeler aras\u0131ndaki genetik fark\u0131n y\u00fczde ikiden az olmas\u0131, yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n sa\u00e7mal\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 parampar\u00e7a eden bir yan\u0131tt\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Bonobo \u015fempanzeleriyle yap\u0131lan son ara\u015ft\u0131rmalar, insana en yak\u0131n primatlar\u0131n baz\u0131 bak\u0131mlardan insan \u00e7ocu\u011fununkine benzeyen bir zihinsel aktiviteye yetenekli olduklar\u0131n\u0131 \u015f\u00fcpheye yer b\u0131rakmayacak bi\u00e7imde kan\u0131tlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu, y\u00fcksek primatlarla insanlar aras\u0131ndaki akrabal\u0131\u011f\u0131n \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 bir kan\u0131t\u0131 olsa da analoji burada \u00e7\u00f6kmeye ba\u015flar. Deneycilerin t\u00fcm \u00e7abalar\u0131na ra\u011fmen esir bonobolar konu\u015famam\u0131\u015flar ya da erken hominidlerce yarat\u0131lan en basit aletlere bile bir nebze olsun benzer bir ta\u015f alet yapamam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r. \u0130nsanlarla \u015fempanzeler aras\u0131ndaki y\u00fczde ikilik genetik fark, hayvanla insan aras\u0131ndaki nitel s\u0131\u00e7ramay\u0131 g\u00f6stermektedir. Bu bir Yarat\u0131c\u0131 sayesinde de\u011fil, el eme\u011fi arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla beynin geli\u015fmesi sayesinde olmu\u015ftur.<\/p>\n

En basit ta\u015f aletleri yapma becerisi dahi \u00e7ok y\u00fcksek bir zihinsel beceri ve soyut d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce d\u00fczeyi gerektirir. Do\u011fru t\u00fcrden ta\u015flar\u0131 se\u00e7ip di\u011ferlerini eleme becerisi, darbeyi indirecek do\u011fru a\u00e7\u0131n\u0131n se\u00e7imi ve tam\u0131 tam\u0131na do\u011fru miktarda g\u00fc\u00e7 uygulama; bunlar y\u00fcksek derecede karma\u015f\u0131k zihinsel eylemlerdir. Bunlar en ileri primatlarda bile bulunmayan bir planlama ve \u00f6ng\u00f6r\u00fc seviyesi anlam\u0131na gelir. Ne var ki, ta\u015f aletlerin kullan\u0131m\u0131 ve \u00fcretimi bilin\u00e7li planlaman\u0131n \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc de\u011fil, zorunlulu\u011fun insan\u0131n uzak atalar\u0131na dayatt\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir \u015feydi. \u0130nsanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 yaratan bilin\u00e7 de\u011fil, b\u00fcy\u00fck bir beyne, konu\u015fmaya ve din de dahil k\u00fclt\u00fcre yol a\u00e7an insan varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n zorunlu ko\u015fullar\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

D\u00fcnyay\u0131 anlama ihtiyac\u0131 hayatta kalma ihtiyac\u0131na s\u0131k\u0131 s\u0131k\u0131ya ba\u011fl\u0131d\u0131r. Kal\u0131n derili \u00f6l\u00fc hayvanlar\u0131 kesip bi\u00e7erken ta\u015f yontucular\u0131 ke\u015ffeden erken hominidler, bu zengin ya\u011f ve protein kayna\u011f\u0131na ula\u015fma \u015fans\u0131ndan mahrum olanlara kar\u015f\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck bir avantaj sa\u011flad\u0131lar. Ta\u015f aletlerini m\u00fckemmelle\u015ftiren ve en iyi malzemeleri nerede bulaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ke\u015ffedenlerin hayatta kalma \u015fans\u0131, bunlar\u0131 yapmayanlara g\u00f6re daha fazla oldu. Tekni\u011fin geli\u015fmesi zihnin geni\u015flemesini sa\u011flad\u0131 ve kendi ya\u015famlar\u0131na h\u00fckmeden do\u011fa olaylar\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klama ihtiyac\u0131n\u0131 do\u011furdu. Atalar\u0131m\u0131z milyonlarca y\u0131l s\u00fcren deneme ve yan\u0131lmayla, olaylar aras\u0131nda belirli ili\u015fkiler kurmaya ba\u015flad\u0131lar. Soyutlamalar yapmaya, yani deneyim ve pratikten genellemeler \u00e7\u0131karmaya ba\u015flad\u0131lar.<\/p>\n

D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin varl\u0131kla ili\u015fkisi sorunu y\u00fczy\u0131llard\u0131r felsefenin ana sorunu olmu\u015ftur. \u0130nsanlar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011fu bu sorunun d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesini bile ak\u0131llar\u0131na getirmeksizin ya\u015famlar\u0131n\u0131 gayet mutlu bi\u00e7imde s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcrler. En k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir zorluk olmaks\u0131z\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcr ve davran\u0131rlar, konu\u015fur ve \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131rlar. Dahas\u0131, pratikte kopmaz bi\u00e7imde birbirine ba\u011fl\u0131 olan en temel iki insan etkinli\u011fini birbiriyle uyumsuz addetmek ak\u0131llar\u0131na bile gelmez. Biyolojik olarak belirlenen basit tepkileri bir kenara b\u0131rak\u0131rsak, en temel davran\u0131\u015f bile bir par\u00e7a d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeyi gerektirir. Bu bir dereceye kadar sadece insanlar i\u00e7in de\u011fil hayvanlar i\u00e7in de do\u011frudur, mesel\u00e2 bir fare i\u00e7in pusuya yatm\u0131\u015f kedi gibi. Ama insandaki d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme ve planlaman\u0131n tipi, en ileri insans\u0131 maymunlar\u0131n zihinsel faaliyetlerinden bile nitel olarak y\u00fcksek bir karakterdedir. Bu olgu, insanlara duyular\u0131m\u0131zla elde etti\u011fimizin \u00e7ok daha \u00f6tesine ge\u00e7me olana\u011f\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayan soyut d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce yetene\u011fine ayr\u0131lmaz bi\u00e7imde ba\u011fl\u0131d\u0131r. Sadece ge\u00e7mi\u015fe ili\u015fkin de\u011fil (hayvanlar\u0131n da belle\u011fi vard\u0131r, k\u00f6pe\u011fin sopa imgesiyle sinmesinde oldu\u011fu gibi) gelece\u011fe ili\u015fkin durumlar\u0131 da tasarlayabiliyoruz. Karma\u015f\u0131k durumlar\u0131 \u00f6ng\u00f6rebiliyor, planlayabiliyor ve b\u00f6ylece sonucu ve bir \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde kendi kaderimizi belirleyebiliyoruz. Normalde bunu akl\u0131m\u0131za getirmesek de bu, insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 do\u011fan\u0131n geri kalan\u0131ndan ay\u0131ran dev bir ad\u0131m\u0131 temsil etmektedir. \u201c\u0130nsan muhakemesinin ay\u0131rt edici yan\u0131\u201d diyor Profes\u00f6r Gordon Childe, \u201cba\u015fka herhangi bir hayvan\u0131n muhakemesine nazaran mevcut fiili durumun muazzam \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde uza\u011f\u0131na gidebilmesidir.\u201d [1] Bu yetenekten, uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n t\u00fcm \u00e7ok y\u00f6nl\u00fc \u00fcr\u00fcnleri f\u0131\u015fk\u0131r\u0131r; k\u00fclt\u00fcr, sanat, m\u00fczik, edebiyat, bilim, felesefe, din. Ayr\u0131ca bunlar\u0131n g\u00f6kten inmeyip milyonlarca y\u0131ll\u0131k geli\u015fmenin \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc oldu\u011funu varsay\u0131yoruz.<\/p>\n

Yunan filozofu Anaksagoras (\u0130.\u00d6. 500-428) parlak bir \u00e7\u0131karsamayla, insan\u0131n zihinsel geli\u015fiminin ellerin \u00f6zg\u00fcrle\u015fmesine ba\u011fl\u0131 oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylemi\u015ftir. \u00d6nemli makalesi Maymundan \u0130nsana Ge\u00e7i\u015fte Eme\u011fin Rol\u00fc\u2019nde Engels bu ge\u00e7i\u015fin nas\u0131l ba\u015far\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 kesin bi\u00e7imde g\u00f6sterir. Elleri emek i\u00e7in \u00f6zg\u00fcrle\u015ftiren dik duru\u015fun ve ba\u015fparma\u011f\u0131 di\u011fer parmaklarla kar\u015f\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131ya konumland\u0131rarak kavramay\u0131 olanakl\u0131 k\u0131lan ellerin bi\u00e7iminin, sonradan beynin geli\u015fiminin ana uyar\u0131c\u0131s\u0131 olan alet yap\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n fizyolojik \u00f6nko\u015fullar\u0131 oldu\u011funu g\u00f6sterir. D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceden kopar\u0131lmas\u0131 m\u00fcmk\u00fcn olmayan konu\u015fma da bizatihi toplumsal \u00fcretimin gereklerinden, i\u015fbirli\u011fi yoluyla karma\u015f\u0131k fonksiyonlar\u0131n ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilmesi ihtiyac\u0131ndan do\u011far. Engels\u2019in bu teorileri, insans\u0131 maymunlar\u0131n daha \u00f6nceleri d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnden \u00e7ok daha erken bir tarihte Afrika\u2019da ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve beyinlerinin modern \u015fempanzelerinkinden hi\u00e7 de b\u00fcy\u00fck olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6steren paleontolojinin* en son ke\u015fifleriyle \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 bi\u00e7imde do\u011frulanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Demek ki, beynin geli\u015fimi alet \u00fcretiminden sonra ve onun bir sonucu olarak gelmektedir. Bu bak\u0131mdan \u201cba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta S\u00f6z vard\u0131\u201d do\u011fru de\u011fildir, aksine Alman \u015fairi Goethe\u2019nin il\u00e2n etti\u011fi gibi \u201cba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta Eylem vard\u0131.\u201d<\/p>\n

Soyut d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce yetene\u011fi dilden ayr\u0131 tutulamaz. \u00dcnl\u00fc prehistoryac\u0131 Gordon Childe \u015fu sonuca var\u0131yor:<\/p>\n

Muhakeme ve \u015fempanzeninki de dahil d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme dedi\u011fimiz her \u015feyin, psikologlar\u0131n imge dedikleri zihinsel i\u015flemleri i\u00e7ermesi gerekir. G\u00f6rsel bir imgenin, diyelim bir muzun zihinsel resminin, her zaman belirli bir yerdeki belirli bir muzun resmi olmas\u0131 riski vard\u0131r. Bir s\u00f6zc\u00fck ise aksine, a\u00e7\u0131kland\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi, her ger\u00e7ek muza bireyselli\u011fini veren tam da o ar\u0131zi \u00f6zellikleri eledi\u011fi i\u00e7in daha genel ve soyuttur. S\u00f6zc\u00fcklerin zihinsel imgeleri (sesin ya da o sesi \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131rken zorunlu olan kas hareketlerinin resimleri) d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeye e\u015flik eden uygun kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015ftururlar. Bunlar\u0131n yard\u0131m\u0131yla d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme zorunlu olarak, tam da hayvan d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmesinin yoksun g\u00f6r\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc soyutluk ve genellik niteli\u011fine sahiptir. \u0130nsanlar, \u201cmuz\u201d denilen nesneler s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 hakk\u0131nda d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnebilir ve konu\u015fabilirken, \u015fempanzeler \u201co borunun i\u00e7indeki o muz\u201dun \u00f6tesine asla ge\u00e7mezler. B\u00f6ylelikle, dil denen toplumsal ara\u00e7, tumturakl\u0131 bi\u00e7imde \u201cinsan\u0131n somuta tutsakl\u0131ktan kurtulu\u015fu\u201d diye tan\u0131mlanan \u015feye katk\u0131da bulunmu\u015ftur. [2]<\/p>\n

\u0130lk insanlar uzun bir zaman s\u00fcrecinden sonra, mesel\u00e2, bir bitki ya da bir hayvan genel d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesini olu\u015fturdular. Bu, \u00e7ok say\u0131da bitki ve hayvana d\u00f6n\u00fck somut g\u00f6zlemlerden do\u011fdu. Ama biz \u201cbitki\u201d genel kavram\u0131na vard\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda, art\u0131k \u00f6n\u00fcm\u00fczde \u015fu ya da bu \u00e7i\u00e7e\u011fi yahut \u00e7al\u0131y\u0131 de\u011fil, bunlar\u0131n hepsinde ortak olan\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcr\u00fcz. Bir bitkinin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n en derinindeki \u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fc kavrar\u0131z. Bununla kar\u015f\u0131la\u015ft\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda tek tek bitkilerin \u00f6zel nitelikleri ikincil ve ge\u00e7ici olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr. Kal\u0131c\u0131 ve evrensel olan, genel kavramda i\u00e7erilmektedir. Asl\u0131nda belirli \u00e7i\u00e7ekler ve \u00e7al\u0131lar d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda bitki denen \u015feyi asla g\u00f6remeyiz. Bu zihnin bir soyutlamas\u0131d\u0131r. Yine de bu, t\u00fcm ikincil \u00f6zelliklerinden soyuldu\u011funda bitkinin do\u011fas\u0131 i\u00e7in temel olan\u0131n daha derin ve daha do\u011fru bir ifadesidir.<\/p>\n

Ne var ki ilk insanlar\u0131n soyutlamalar\u0131 bilimsel bir nitelik ta\u015f\u0131maktan uzakt\u0131. Bu a\u00e7\u0131klamalar yaln\u0131zca deneysel aray\u0131\u015flard\u0131, bir \u00e7ocu\u011fun izlenimleri gibi; kimi zaman yanl\u0131\u015f olabilen, ama her zaman cesur ve hayalg\u00fcc\u00fc kuvvetli \u00f6ng\u00f6r\u00fcler, hipotezler. Uzak atalar\u0131m\u0131z i\u00e7in g\u00fcne\u015f zaman zaman onlar\u0131 \u0131s\u0131tan ve zaman zaman da yakan b\u00fcy\u00fck bir varl\u0131kt\u0131. Yer uyuyan bir devdi. Ate\u015f, dokunduklar\u0131nda onlar\u0131 \u0131s\u0131ran vah\u015fi bir hayvan. \u0130lk insanlar g\u00f6k g\u00fcr\u00fclt\u00fcs\u00fc ve \u015fim\u015fe\u011fe tan\u0131k oldular. Bu onlar\u0131 korkutmu\u015f olmal\u0131d\u0131r, t\u0131pk\u0131 bug\u00fcn hayvanlar\u0131 ve insanlar\u0131 korkuttu\u011fu gibi. Ama hayvanlardan farkl\u0131 olarak insanlar olay\u0131n genel bir a\u00e7\u0131klamas\u0131n\u0131 arad\u0131lar. Herhangi bir bilimsel bilginin yoklu\u011funda a\u00e7\u0131klama, de\u011fi\u015fmez bi\u00e7imde do\u011fa\u00fcst\u00fc bir a\u00e7\u0131klama oldu; \u00e7ekiciyle \u00f6rs\u00fc d\u00f6ven bir tanr\u0131. Bu t\u00fcr a\u00e7\u0131klamalar bize, \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n naif a\u00e7\u0131klamalar\u0131 gibi yaln\u0131zca g\u00fcl\u00fcn\u00e7 g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr. Ancak, o d\u00f6nemde bunlar son derece \u00f6nemli hipotezlerdi; insanlar\u0131n dolays\u0131z deneyimden ay\u0131rt etti\u011fi ve ondan t\u00fcm\u00fcyle ayr\u0131 bir \u015fey olarak g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc olay\u0131n ak\u0131lc\u0131 bir nedenini bulma \u00e7abas\u0131.<\/p>\n

Erken dinin en karakteristik bi\u00e7imi animizmdir: canl\u0131 ya da cans\u0131z her \u015feyin bir ruhu oldu\u011fu anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131. Kafas\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7arpt\u0131\u011f\u0131 masaya tokat atan \u00e7ocukta da benzer tipte bir tepki g\u00f6r\u00fcr\u00fcz. Ayn\u0131 \u015fekilde ilk insanlar, ve bug\u00fcnk\u00fc baz\u0131 kabileler de, kesmeden \u00f6nce a\u011fac\u0131n ruhundan kendilerini affetmelerini isterler. Animizm, insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n kendisini hayvan d\u00fcnyas\u0131ndan ve genelde do\u011fadan hen\u00fcz tamamen ay\u0131rmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir d\u00f6neme aittir. \u0130nsanlar\u0131n hayvanlar\u0131n d\u00fcnyas\u0131na olan yak\u0131nl\u0131klar\u0131\u00adna, atlar\u0131n, geyik ve bizonun modern sanat\u00e7\u0131lar taraf\u0131ndan bir daha asla yakalanamayacak olan bir do\u011fall\u0131kla resmedildikleri ma\u011fara sanat\u0131n\u0131n tazeli\u011fi ve g\u00fczelli\u011fi tan\u0131kl\u0131k eder. Bu, bir daha geri getirilemeyecek olan insan soyunun \u00e7ocukluk d\u00f6nemiydi. Bu uzak atalar\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n psikolojisini yaln\u0131zca hayal edebiliriz. Ama paleontolojinin ke\u015fiflerini antropolojiyle birle\u015ftirerek, i\u00e7inden \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z d\u00fcnyay\u0131 en az\u0131ndan taslak olarak yeniden kurmam\u0131z m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr.<\/p>\n

B\u00fcy\u00fc ve dinin k\u00f6kenlerini ara\u015ft\u0131ran klasik antropoloji \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131nda Sir James Frazer \u015funlar\u0131 yaz\u0131yor:<\/p>\n

Bir vah\u015finin, daha geli\u015fkin insanlar\u0131n do\u011fa ve do\u011fa\u00fcst\u00fc aras\u0131nda \u00e7izdi\u011fi ayr\u0131m\u0131 anlamas\u0131 pek zordur. Ona g\u00f6re d\u00fcnya b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde do\u011fa\u00fcst\u00fc g\u00fc\u00e7ler taraf\u0131ndan, yani kendisininki gibi itkiler ve d\u00fcrt\u00fclerle hareket eden, yine kendisi gibi, kendisine yap\u0131lan merhamet, umut ve korku \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131lar\u0131na g\u00f6re davranmaya m\u00fcsait ki\u015fisel varl\u0131klar taraf\u0131ndan i\u015fletilmektedir. B\u00f6yle tasavvur edilen bir d\u00fcnyada do\u011fan\u0131n gidi\u015fini kendi yarar\u0131na etkileme g\u00fcc\u00fc ona s\u0131n\u0131rs\u0131z g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr. Dualar, vaatler ve tehditler, tanr\u0131lardan iyi hava ko\u015fullar\u0131 ve bol mahsul koparmas\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flayabilir; ve e\u011fer bir tanr\u0131, zaman zaman onun da inand\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi, onun kendi ki\u015fili\u011finde yeniden canlanacak olursa, o zaman daha y\u00fcksek hi\u00e7bir varl\u0131\u011fa ba\u015fvurma ihtiyac\u0131 duymaz; kendisinin ve hemcinslerinin mutlulu\u011funu artt\u0131rmak i\u00e7in gerekli t\u00fcm g\u00fc\u00e7leri kendisinde toplam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. [3]<\/p>\n

Ruhun bedenden ayr\u0131 ve ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z oldu\u011fu anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 vah\u015fili\u011fin en uzak d\u00f6nemine kadar uzan\u0131r. Bunun temeli \u00e7ok a\u00e7\u0131kt\u0131r. Biz uyurken ruh bedeni terk edip r\u00fcyalarda gezinir. Geni\u015fletme yoluyla, \u00f6l\u00fcm ve uyku aras\u0131ndaki benzerlik (Shakespeare \u201c\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn ikinci beni\u201d diyordu), ruhun \u00f6l\u00fcmden sonra da varolmay\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrebildi\u011fi fikrine ilham vermi\u015ftir. B\u00f6ylece ilk insanlar kendi i\u00e7lerinde kendi bedenlerinden ayr\u0131 bir \u015fey oldu\u011fu sonucuna vard\u0131lar. Bu, bedene komuta eden ve her t\u00fcrden inan\u0131lmaz \u015feyi, beden uyurken bile yapabilen ruhtur. Bu insanlar yine bilgece s\u00f6zlerin ya\u015fl\u0131 insanlar\u0131n a\u011fz\u0131ndan \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131na dikkat ederek, beden \u00f6l\u00fcrken ruhun ya\u015famaya devam etti\u011fi sonucuna vard\u0131lar. G\u00f6\u00e7me fikrine al\u0131\u015fk\u0131n insanlar i\u00e7in \u00f6l\u00fcm, yolculuk i\u00e7in yiyecek ve gere\u00e7lere de ihtiya\u00e7 duyan ruhun g\u00f6\u00e7\u00fc olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc.<\/p>\n

\u00d6nceleri sabit bir mek\u00e2n\u0131 olmayan ruhlar, \u00e7o\u011funlukla bir s\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131ya yol a\u00e7arak salt gezinti yap\u0131yor ve ya\u015fayanlar\u0131 onlar\u0131n huzura erdirilmesi i\u00e7in ola\u011fan\u00fcst\u00fc mesafelere gitmeye zorluyorlard\u0131. \u0130\u015fte burada dinsel seremonilerin k\u00f6kenini g\u00f6r\u00fcyoruz. Sonu\u00e7 olarak bu ruhlar\u0131n yard\u0131m\u0131 dua arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla elde edilebilirdi. Bu a\u015famada din (b\u00fcy\u00fc), sanat ve bilim ayr\u0131\u015fm\u0131\u015f de\u011fillerdi. Kendi \u00e7evreleri \u00fczerinde ger\u00e7ek hakimiyet kurma ara\u00e7lar\u0131ndan yoksun olan ilk insanlar, ama\u00e7lar\u0131na do\u011fayla b\u00fcy\u00fcye dayal\u0131 bir ili\u015fki kurarak ve b\u00f6ylece onu kendi iradelerine t\u00e2bi k\u0131larak ula\u015fmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131lar. \u0130lk insanlar\u0131n kendi ruh-tanr\u0131lar\u0131na ve feti\u015flerine kar\u015f\u0131 tav\u0131rlar\u0131 son derece pratikti. Dualar\u0131n niyeti sonu\u00e7 elde etmekti. Bir insan kendi elleriyle bir put yapar ve onun \u00f6n\u00fcnde yere kapan\u0131rd\u0131. Ama arzu edilen sonu\u00e7 gelmezse, yakar\u0131\u015f yoluyla almay\u0131 beceremedi\u011fi \u015feyi \u015fiddet yoluyla \u00e7ekip \u00e7\u0131karmak i\u00e7in puta l\u00e2net okur ve ona vururdu. R\u00fcyalar ve hayaletlerin bu ilgin\u00e7 d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda, ya da bu din d\u00fcnyas\u0131nda, ilkel ak\u0131l, olan biten her \u015feyi g\u00f6r\u00fcnmeyen ruhlar\u0131n i\u015fi olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcyordu. Her \u00e7al\u0131 ve ak\u0131nt\u0131, dost ya da d\u00fc\u015fman bir canl\u0131 yarat\u0131kt\u0131. Her \u015fansl\u0131 olay\u0131n, her r\u00fcyan\u0131n, a\u011fr\u0131 ya da duyumun sebebi bir ruhtu. Dinsel a\u00e7\u0131klamalar, do\u011fa yasalar\u0131na dair bilgi eksikli\u011finin b\u0131rakt\u0131\u011f\u0131 bo\u015flu\u011fu doldurdu. \u00d6l\u00fcm bile do\u011fal bir olay olarak de\u011fil, tanr\u0131lara kar\u015f\u0131 i\u015flenmi\u015f bir su\u00e7un sonucu olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc.<\/p>\n

\u0130nsan soyunun varolu\u015funun b\u00fcy\u00fck b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnde insanlar\u0131n zihinleri bu t\u00fcr \u015feylerle dolu olmu\u015ftur. \u00dcstelik bu yaln\u0131zca, insanlar\u0131n ilkel toplumlar olarak g\u00f6rmekten ho\u015fland\u0131\u011f\u0131 toplumlarla s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 kalmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ayn\u0131 t\u00fcr bat\u0131l inan\u00e7lar biraz farkl\u0131 k\u0131l\u0131klar alt\u0131nda bug\u00fcn de varolmay\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcyorlar. Uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ince cil\u00e2s\u0131 alt\u0131nda, k\u00f6kleri, yar\u0131 unutulmu\u015f fakat alt edilmemi\u015f uzak ge\u00e7mi\u015fte olan ilkel ak\u0131ld\u0131\u015f\u0131 e\u011filimler ve fikirler gizlenmektedir. \u0130nsanlar kendi varolu\u015f ko\u015fullar\u0131 \u00fczerinde s\u0131k\u0131 bir denetim kurmad\u0131k\u00e7a da, bunlar\u0131n k\u00f6k\u00fc, nihayetinde insan bilincinden kaz\u0131nmayacakt\u0131r.
\u0130\u015fb\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc<\/p>\n

Frazer ilkel toplumda kol ve kafa eme\u011finin birbirinden ayr\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131n, \u015fa\u015fmaz bi\u00e7imde bir rahipler, \u015famanlar ya da b\u00fcy\u00fcc\u00fcler kast\u0131n\u0131n olu\u015fumuyla ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 oldu\u011funa i\u015faret etmektedir:<\/p>\n

Toplumsal ilerleme, bildi\u011fimiz gibi, as\u0131l olarak i\u015flevlerin art arda farkl\u0131la\u015fmas\u0131ndan, ya da daha basit ifadeyle i\u015fb\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcnden olu\u015fmaktad\u0131r. \u0130lkel toplumda i\u015f, hepsi birbirine benzeyen insanlar taraf\u0131ndan yap\u0131l\u0131r ve hepsi e\u015f derecede ya da neredeyse e\u015f derecede kusurlu olan insanlar taraf\u0131ndan farkl\u0131 i\u015f\u00e7i s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131 aras\u0131nda kademeli olarak da\u011f\u0131t\u0131l\u0131r ve gitgide kusursuz bi\u00e7imde yerine getirilir; ve onun uzmanla\u015fm\u0131\u015f eme\u011finin maddi ya da maddi olmayan \u00fcr\u00fcnleri herkes\u00e7e b\u00f6l\u00fc\u015f\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde, b\u00fct\u00fcn topluluk artan uzmanla\u015fmadan yararlan\u0131r. \u015eimdi b\u00fcy\u00fcc\u00fcler ya da t\u0131p adamlar\u0131, toplumun evriminde en eski zanaatk\u00e2r ya da mesleki s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 olu\u015fturuyor g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcyorlar. Bildi\u011fimiz her vah\u015fi kabilede b\u00fcy\u00fcc\u00fcler bulunmu\u015ftur; ve Avustralya aborijinleri gibi en a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 vah\u015filer aras\u0131nda bunlar varolan yeg\u00e2ne mesleki s\u0131n\u0131ft\u0131rlar. [4]<\/p>\n

Ruhu bedenden, zihni maddeden, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmeyi eylemden ay\u0131ran d\u00fcalizm, toplumsal evrimin verili bir a\u015famas\u0131nda i\u015fb\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn geli\u015fmesiyle g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir itilim kazand\u0131. Toplumun s\u0131n\u0131flara b\u00f6l\u00fcnmesiyle \u00e7ak\u0131\u015fan bir olgu olan kafa ve kol eme\u011fi aras\u0131ndaki ayr\u0131lma, insan\u0131n geli\u015fiminde b\u00fcy\u00fck bir at\u0131l\u0131m\u0131 ifade eder. Toplumda ilk kez bir az\u0131nl\u0131k, zorunlu ihtiya\u00e7 maddelerini temin i\u00e7in \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma zorunlulu\u011fundan kurtulmu\u015ftu. Bu en de\u011ferli nesneye, serbest zamana sahip olmak, insanlar\u0131n ya\u015famlar\u0131n\u0131 y\u0131ld\u0131zlar\u0131n incelenmesine adayabilecekleri anlam\u0131na geliyordu. Alman materyalist filozofu Ludwig Feuerbach\u2019\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131klad\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi, ger\u00e7ek teorik bilim kozmolojiyle ba\u015flar:<\/p>\n

Hayvan yaln\u0131zca ya\u015fam\u0131 do\u011frudan etkileyen \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 duyumsar; ama insan, onun i\u00e7in fiziksel olarak farks\u0131z olan en uzak y\u0131ld\u0131z\u0131n \u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n\u0131 alg\u0131lar. Sadece insan kat\u0131ks\u0131z olarak zihinsel, \u00e7\u0131kar sa\u011flamaktan uzak zevk ve tutkulara sahiptir; sadece insan\u0131n g\u00f6z\u00fc teorik \u015fenlikler yapar. Y\u0131ld\u0131zl\u0131 g\u00f6klere bakan, o \u0131\u015f\u0131\u011fa kilitlenen g\u00f6z, yerle ve onun zorunluluklar\u0131yla ortak hi\u00e7bir noktas\u0131 olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7in, e\u015f derecede yarars\u0131z ve zarars\u0131zd\u0131r. Bu g\u00f6z o \u0131\u015f\u0131kta kendi do\u011fas\u0131n\u0131, kendi k\u00f6kenini g\u00f6r\u00fcr. G\u00f6z do\u011fas\u0131 gere\u011fi g\u00f6kseldir. O y\u00fczden insan kendisini yaln\u0131zca g\u00f6zle yerden yukar\u0131 y\u00fckseltir; o y\u00fczden teori g\u00f6kleri d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnmekle ba\u015flar. \u0130lk filozoflar astronomlard\u0131. [5]<\/p>\n

Bu olgu, bu ilk a\u015famada her ne kadar dinle ve bir rahip kast\u0131n\u0131n istek ve \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131yla i\u00e7 i\u00e7e idiyse de, ayn\u0131 zamanda insan uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n do\u011fu\u015fu anlam\u0131na geliyordu. Bunu anlayan Aristoteles de \u015funu yazm\u0131\u015ft\u0131:<\/p>\n

Dahas\u0131 bu teorik sanatlar, insanlar\u0131n bol serbest zamana sahip oldu\u011fu yerlerde ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r: \u00f6rne\u011fin matematik, zorunlu serbest zaman\u0131n nimetlerinden faydalanan M\u0131s\u0131r\u2019da ortaya \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. [6]<\/p>\n

Bilgi bir iktidar kayna\u011f\u0131d\u0131r. Sanat\u0131n, bilimin ve devletin bir az\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131n tekelinde oldu\u011fu her toplumda, bu az\u0131nl\u0131k bu iktidar\u0131 kendi \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131 i\u00e7in kullan\u0131r ve suiistimal eder. Nil\u2019in y\u0131ll\u0131k ta\u015fk\u0131n\u0131, mahsul\u00fc ona ba\u011fl\u0131 olan M\u0131s\u0131r insan\u0131 i\u00e7in bir \u00f6l\u00fcm kal\u0131m sorunuydu. M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131 rahiplerin astronomik g\u00f6zlemler temelinde Nil\u2019in ne zaman k\u0131y\u0131lar\u0131na ta\u015faca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6ng\u00f6rme yetenekleri, onlar\u0131n toplum \u00fczerindeki prestij ve iktidarlar\u0131n\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde artt\u0131rm\u0131\u015f olmal\u0131d\u0131r. En g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bulu\u015f olan yazma sanat\u0131, rahip kast\u0131n\u0131n k\u0131skan\u00e7l\u0131kla korunan s\u0131rr\u0131yd\u0131. Ilya Prigogine ve Isabelle Stengers\u2019in yorumlad\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi:<\/p>\n

Yaz\u0131y\u0131 S\u00fcmerler ke\u015ffetmi\u015fti; S\u00fcmerli rahipler gelece\u011fin \u015fu anda etraf\u0131m\u0131zda olup biten olaylarda gizlice yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olabilece\u011fini d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyorlard\u0131. Hatta bu inanc\u0131 birtak\u0131m b\u00fcy\u00fcsel ve ak\u0131lc\u0131 \u00f6\u011feler de katarak sistematize etmi\u015flerdi. [7]<\/p>\n

\u0130\u015fb\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn daha da geli\u015fmesi, entelekt\u00fcel elit ile insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n el eme\u011fine mahk\u00fbm \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011fu aras\u0131nda, k\u00f6pr\u00fc kurulmas\u0131 olanaks\u0131z bir yar\u0131lmaya yol a\u00e7t\u0131. Entelekt\u00fcel, ister Babilli rahip olsun ister modern teorik fizik\u00e7i, sadece bir t\u00fcr eme\u011fi, zihinsel eme\u011fi bilir. Bu sonuncular\u0131n \u201ckaba\u201d el eme\u011fine \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc binlerce y\u0131ld\u0131r derinlere i\u015fler ve bir \u00f6nyarg\u0131 g\u00fcc\u00fcne kavu\u015fur. Dil, s\u00f6zc\u00fckler ve d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceler, mistik g\u00fc\u00e7lerle donat\u0131l\u0131r. K\u00fclt\u00fcr, kendi s\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 k\u0131skan\u00e7\u00e7a koruyan ve kendi konumunu kendi \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131na kullan\u0131p suiistimal eden ayr\u0131cal\u0131kl\u0131 bir elitin tekeli olur.<\/p>\n

Eski devirlerde entelekt\u00fcel aristokrasi fiziksel eme\u011fe duydu\u011fu k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fcmsemeyi gizleme gere\u011fi duymuyordu. \u0130.\u00d6. 2000 dolaylar\u0131nda yaz\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olan ve Meslekler \u00dczerine Hiciv ad\u0131yla bilinen bir M\u0131s\u0131r metninden al\u0131nma a\u015fa\u011f\u0131daki par\u00e7an\u0131n, bir baban\u0131n, yaz\u0131c\u0131 olarak e\u011fitim g\u00f6rmek \u00fczere Yaz\u0131 Okuluna g\u00f6nderdi\u011fi o\u011fluna yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 hararetli tavsiyelerden olu\u015ftu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmektedir:<\/p>\n

\u00c7al\u0131\u015fan adam\u0131n nas\u0131l \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6rd\u00fcm; sen kalbini yazmaya vermelisin. Ve ben bir insan\u0131n kendi y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fcklerinden nas\u0131l kurtar\u0131labilece\u011fini de g\u00f6zledim; unutma, yazmaktan daha \u00fcst\u00fcn hi\u00e7bir \u015fey yoktur …<\/p>\n

Metal i\u015f\u00e7isini f\u0131r\u0131n\u0131n\u0131n a\u011fz\u0131nda \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131rken g\u00f6rd\u00fcm. Parmaklar\u0131 sanki timsahlar gibiydi; bal\u0131k yumurtas\u0131ndan daha i\u011fren\u00e7 kokuyordu …<\/p>\n

K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck in\u015faat i\u015f\u00e7isi \u00e7amur ta\u015f\u0131r … \u00c7amur \u00e7i\u011fnemekten dolay\u0131 asmalardan ya da domuzlardan daha pistir. K\u0131yafetleri kaba ve \u00e7amurludur.<\/p>\n

Ok yap\u0131c\u0131s\u0131 [ta\u015f u\u00e7lar\u0131 temin etmek i\u00e7in] \u00e7\u00f6le \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131nda \u00e7ok sefildir. Yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u015fin [de\u011ferinden] daha fazlas\u0131n\u0131 e\u015fe\u011fine verir …<\/p>\n

\u00c7ama\u015f\u0131rc\u0131 adam timsahlar\u0131n yan\u0131ba\u015f\u0131nda nehir k\u0131y\u0131s\u0131nda \u00e7ama\u015f\u0131r y\u0131kar …<\/p>\n

Sak\u0131n akl\u0131ndan \u00e7\u0131karma, patronu olmayan meslek yoktur; yaz\u0131c\u0131dan ba\u015fka: patron odur …<\/p>\n

Sak\u0131n akl\u0131ndan \u00e7\u0131karma, Kral\u0131n Evi\u2019ndeki yiyecekten \u2013ya\u015fam, zenginlik, sa\u011fl\u0131k!\u2013 mahrum kalan yaz\u0131c\u0131 yoktur … Onun babas\u0131 ve annesi, bu hayat yolunda azimli olmas\u0131 i\u00e7in tanr\u0131ya \u015f\u00fckrederler. Bunlar\u0131 akl\u0131ndan \u00e7\u0131karma, sana ve senin \u00e7ocuklar\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7ocuklar\u0131 \u00f6n\u00fcne [bunlar\u0131 koydum.] [8]<\/p>\n

Ayn\u0131 tav\u0131r Yunanl\u0131lar aras\u0131nda da hakimdi. Ksenophon \u015f\u00f6yle diyor:<\/p>\n

Mekanik i\u015fler denilen i\u015fler, toplumsal bir damga ta\u015f\u0131rlar ve bizim kentlerimizde lekelenmi\u015flerdir, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc bu i\u015fler onlarla u\u011fra\u015fanlar\u0131n ya da onlara g\u00f6zetmenlik edenlerin bedenlerini, onlar\u0131 eve kapal\u0131, hareketsiz bir hayata ve baz\u0131 durumlarda t\u00fcm g\u00fcn\u00fc ate\u015fin ba\u015f\u0131nda ge\u00e7irmeye zorlayarak hasara u\u011frat\u0131r. Bu fiziksel yozla\u015fma ruhun da bozulmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7ar. Daha da \u00f6tesi, bu i\u015flerde \u00e7al\u0131\u015fan i\u015f\u00e7ilerin arkada\u015fl\u0131k ya da yurtta\u015fl\u0131k g\u00f6revlerini yapmalar\u0131 i\u00e7in zamanlar\u0131 yoktur. Sonu\u00e7 olarak onlara, k\u00f6t\u00fc arkada\u015flar ve k\u00f6t\u00fc yurtseverler g\u00f6z\u00fcyle bak\u0131l\u0131r ve baz\u0131 kentlerde, \u00f6zellikle sava\u015f kentlerinde, bir yurtta\u015f\u0131n mekanik i\u015fler yapmas\u0131 yasal de\u011fildir. [9]<\/p>\n

Kafa ve kol eme\u011fi aras\u0131ndaki k\u00f6kl\u00fc ayr\u0131\u015fma fikirlerin, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerin ve s\u00f6zc\u00fcklerin ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z bir varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 oldu\u011fu yan\u0131lsamas\u0131n\u0131 derinle\u015ftirir. T\u00fcm dinin ve felsefi idealizmin alt\u0131nda bu yanl\u0131\u015f anlay\u0131\u015f yatar.<\/p>\n

Kendi suretinde insan\u0131 yaratan tanr\u0131 de\u011fildir, aksine tanr\u0131lar\u0131 kendi suret ve benzeyi\u015flerinde yaratan insanlard\u0131r. Ludwig Feuerbach, ku\u015flar\u0131n bir dini olsayd\u0131 tanr\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n kanatl\u0131 olaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6yl\u00fcyordu. \u201cDin, kendi anlay\u0131\u015f ve duygular\u0131m\u0131z\u0131n bize ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z ve d\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131zda varl\u0131klar olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcnd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc bir r\u00fcyad\u0131r. Dinsel ak\u0131l \u00f6zne ve nesne aras\u0131nda ayr\u0131m yapmaz, \u015f\u00fcpheden muaft\u0131r; ba\u015fka \u015feyleri kendisinden ay\u0131rt etme yetisinden yoksundur, ama kendi tahayy\u00fcllerini kendi d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda ayr\u0131 varl\u0131klar olarak g\u00f6rme yetisine sahiptir.\u201d [10] Kolophon\u2019lu Ksenophanes de bunu anlam\u0131\u015ft\u0131: \u201cHomeros ve Hesiodos, insanlar aras\u0131ndaki b\u00fct\u00fcn utan\u00e7 verici ve onursuz i\u015fleri tanr\u0131lara atfetmi\u015ftir: \u00e7al\u0131p \u00e7\u0131rpma, zina ve birbirini kand\u0131rma … Etiyopyal\u0131lar kendi tanr\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 siyah ve kalk\u0131k burunlu yaparlar, ve Trakyal\u0131lar da gri g\u00f6zl\u00fc, k\u0131z\u0131l sa\u00e7l\u0131 … E\u011fer hayvanlar da insanlar gibi resim veya ba\u015fka \u015feyler yapabilselerdi, atlar ve \u00f6k\u00fczler de kendi tanr\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 kendi suretlerinde yaparlard\u0131.\u201d [11]<\/p>\n

Neredeyse t\u00fcm dinlerde varolan yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f efsaneleri, \u015fa\u015fmaz bi\u00e7imde imgelerini ger\u00e7ek hayattan al\u0131rlar, \u00f6rne\u011fin, \u015fekilsiz kile \u015fekil veren \u00e7\u00f6mlek\u00e7i imgesi. Gordon Childe\u2019\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesine g\u00f6re, ilk kitap Tekvin\u2019deki Yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f hik\u00e2yesi, Mezopotamya\u2019da \u201cBa\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta\u201d topra\u011f\u0131n ger\u00e7ekten sulardan ayr\u0131lm\u0131\u015f oldu\u011fu, ama bunun il\u00e2hi m\u00fcdahaleyle olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 olgusunu yans\u0131t\u0131yordu:<\/p>\n

\u00dczerinde b\u00fcy\u00fck Babil kentlerinin y\u00fckselece\u011fi toprak kelimenin tam anlam\u0131yla yarat\u0131lmal\u0131yd\u0131; Kutsal Kitapta ad\u0131 ge\u00e7en Erek\u2019in tarih \u00f6ncesi habercisi, al\u00fcviyal \u00e7amur \u00fczerine \u00e7aprazlama yat\u0131r\u0131lan sazl\u0131klardan olu\u015fan bir t\u00fcr platform \u00fczerine in\u015fa edilmi\u015fti. \u0130branilerin Tekvin kitab\u0131, bizi S\u00fcmer\u2019in \u00e7ok daha eski ve bozulmam\u0131\u015f haline ili\u015fkin gelenekler hakk\u0131nda bilgilendirmi\u015ftir: su ve kuru toprak aras\u0131ndaki s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131n h\u00e2l\u00e2 ak\u0131\u015fkan oldu\u011fu bir \u201ckaos\u201d. \u201cYarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u201dtaki temel hadiselerden birisi bu unsurlar\u0131n ayr\u0131\u015fmas\u0131d\u0131r. Oysa topra\u011f\u0131 yaratan tanr\u0131 de\u011fil bizzat proto-S\u00fcmerlerdi; tarlalar\u0131 sulamak ve batakl\u0131\u011f\u0131 kurutmak i\u00e7in kanallar a\u00e7t\u0131lar; insanlar\u0131 ve hayvanlar\u0131 sulardan korumak i\u00e7in bentler ve y\u00fcksek platformlar in\u015fa ettiler; sert sazl\u0131klar\u0131 ilk kez a\u00e7arak bunlar aras\u0131ndaki kanallar\u0131 ke\u015ffettiler. Bu m\u00fccadelenin an\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n geleneklerde inatla ya\u015famas\u0131, eski S\u00fcmerlilerin i\u00e7ine d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fckleri zorlu\u011fun \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcs\u00fc hakk\u0131nda bir fikir verir. Elde ettikleri \u00f6d\u00fcl ise, besleyici hurmalar\u0131n sa\u011flama ba\u011flanm\u0131\u015f mahsul\u00fc, aka\u00e7lanm\u0131\u015f tarlalardan bol \u00fcr\u00fcn ve s\u00fcr\u00fcler i\u00e7in s\u00fcrekli otlaklard\u0131. [12]<\/p>\n

\u0130nsan\u0131n d\u00fcnyay\u0131 ve onun i\u00e7inde kendi yerini a\u00e7\u0131klama yolundaki en eski \u00e7abalar\u0131 mitolojiyle i\u00e7 i\u00e7e ge\u00e7mi\u015ftir. Babilliler tanr\u0131 Marduk\u2019un, topra\u011f\u0131 sudan, g\u00f6\u011f\u00fc de yerden ay\u0131rarak, Kaosun i\u00e7inden D\u00fczen yaratt\u0131\u011f\u0131na inan\u0131yorlard\u0131. Yahudiler Kutsal Kitab\u0131n Yarat\u0131l\u0131\u015f mitini Babillilerden ald\u0131 ve sonra da H\u0131ristiyan k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcne aktard\u0131. Bilimsel d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin ger\u00e7ek hik\u00e2yesi, erkeklerin ve kad\u0131nlar\u0131n mitolojiden vazge\u00e7mesiyle ve tanr\u0131lar\u0131 araya kar\u0131\u015ft\u0131rmadan, do\u011fan\u0131n ak\u0131lc\u0131 bir tasar\u0131m\u0131na varmak i\u00e7in \u00e7aba g\u00f6stermesiyle ba\u015flar. O andan itibaren, insanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n maddi ve manevi esaretten kurtulu\u015f i\u00e7in ger\u00e7ek m\u00fccadelesi ba\u015flar.<\/p>\n

Felsefenin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131 insan d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesinde ger\u00e7ek bir devrimi temsil eder. Modern uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc gibi, biz de onu eski Yunanl\u0131lara bor\u00e7luyuz. Hintliler, \u00c7inliler ve daha sonra Araplar taraf\u0131ndan \u00f6nemli ilerlemeler kaydedilmi\u015f olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen, R\u00f6nesansa kadar olan d\u00f6nemde felsefe ve bilimi en y\u00fcksek noktas\u0131na \u00e7\u0131karanlar Yunanl\u0131lard\u0131. \u0130.\u00d6. 7. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ortalar\u0131ndan itibaren d\u00f6rt y\u00fczy\u0131ll\u0131k d\u00f6nemin Yunan d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce tarihi, insanl\u0131k tarihinin en etkileyici sayfalar\u0131ndan birini olu\u015fturur.
Materyalizm ve \u0130dealizm<\/p>\n

Yunanl\u0131lardan ta bug\u00fcne kadar t\u00fcm felsefe tarihi iki z\u0131t d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce okulu aras\u0131ndaki bir m\u00fccadeleden ibarettir: materyalizm ve idealizm. Burada, felsefede kullan\u0131lan kavramlar\u0131n g\u00fcndelik dilden nas\u0131l temelli bi\u00e7imde farkl\u0131la\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n m\u00fckemmel bir \u00f6rne\u011fi ile kar\u015f\u0131la\u015f\u0131yoruz.<\/p>\n

Birisini \u201cidealist\u201d olarak and\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131zda normalde akl\u0131m\u0131zda y\u00fcksek idealleri ve kusursuz ahl\u00e2k\u0131 olan bir insan vard\u0131r. Materyalist ise tersine, yiyece\u011fe ve di\u011fer \u015feylere kar\u015f\u0131 azg\u0131n bir i\u015ftah duyan, ilkesiz, para d\u00fc\u015fk\u00fcn\u00fc, bencil bir birey olarak \u2013k\u0131sacas\u0131 tamamen sevimsiz bir karakter olarak\u2013 g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr.<\/p>\n

Bunun felsefi materyalizm ve idealizmle hi\u00e7 ilgisi yoktur. Felsefi anlamda idealizm d\u00fcnyan\u0131n yaln\u0131zca d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerin, zihnin, ruhun, ya da daha do\u011frusu, fiziksel d\u00fcnya varolmadan \u00f6nce varolan \u0130dean\u0131n bir yans\u0131mas\u0131 oldu\u011fu g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnden hareket eder. Duyular\u0131m\u0131zla bildi\u011fimiz kaba maddi \u015feyler, bu okula g\u00f6re, kusursuz \u0130dean\u0131n kusurlu kopyalar\u0131d\u0131r. Antik d\u00f6nemde bu felsefenin en tutarl\u0131 savunucusu Platon\u2019du. Gelgelelim, idealizmi o icat etmedi, onun bir evveliyat\u0131 vard\u0131.<\/p>\n

Pisagorcular her \u015feyin \u00f6z\u00fcn\u00fcn Say\u0131 oldu\u011funa inan\u0131yorlard\u0131 (baz\u0131 modern matematik\u00e7iler taraf\u0131ndan alenen payla\u015f\u0131lan bir g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f). Pisagorcular genelde maddi d\u00fcnyaya, \u00f6zelde de, ruhu esir eden bir hapishane olarak g\u00f6rd\u00fckleri insan bedenine kar\u015f\u0131 bir horg\u00f6r\u00fc beslediler. Bu, \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 bi\u00e7imde orta\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n ke\u015fi\u015flerinin d\u00fcnyaya bak\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 hat\u0131rlat\u0131yor. Ger\u00e7ekte Kilisenin, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncelerinin bir\u00e7o\u011funu Pisagorculardan, Platonculardan ve yeni-Platonculardan alm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131 pek muhtemeldir. Bu \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 de\u011fil. T\u00fcm dinler zorunlu olarak idealist bir d\u00fcnya g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnden hareket ederler. Fark \u015furadad\u0131r ki, din duygulara hitap eder ve d\u00fcnyan\u0131n mistik, sezgisel bir tasar\u0131m\u0131n\u0131 (\u201cVahiy\u201d) sundu\u011funu iddia ederken, idealist filozoflar\u0131n \u00e7o\u011fu kendi teorileri i\u00e7in mant\u0131ksal arg\u00fcmanlar sunmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131rlar.<\/p>\n

Ama dibine inildi\u011finde, idealizmin t\u00fcm bi\u00e7imlerinin k\u00f6kleri dinsel ve mistiktir. \u201cKaba maddi d\u00fcnyay\u0131\u201d hor g\u00f6rme ve \u201c\u0130deali\u201d y\u00fcceltme, do\u011frudan do\u011fruya, az \u00f6nce din bak\u0131m\u0131ndan \u00fczerinde durdu\u011fumuz olgulardan do\u011far. Platoncu idealizmin, k\u00f6leci sistemin doru\u011funa ula\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00f6nemde Atina\u2019da geli\u015fmi\u015f olmas\u0131 bir tesad\u00fcf de\u011fildir. O g\u00fcnlerde el eme\u011fi, kelimenin tam anlam\u0131yla k\u00f6leli\u011fin damgas\u0131 olarak g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyordu. Takdire lay\u0131k tek emek zihinsel emekti. Esasen felsefi idealizm, yaz\u0131l\u0131 tarihin \u015fafa\u011f\u0131ndan g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcze kadar s\u00fcregelen kafa ve kol eme\u011finin a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 b\u00f6l\u00fcnmesinin bir \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcd\u00fcr.<\/p>\n

Ne var ki, Bat\u0131 felsefesi tarihi idealizmle de\u011fil, tam aksini ileri s\u00fcren materyalizmle ba\u015flar: bildi\u011fimiz ve bilimle ke\u015ffetti\u011fimiz maddi d\u00fcnya ger\u00e7ektir; tek ger\u00e7ek d\u00fcnya maddi oland\u0131r; d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceler, fikirler ve duyular belirli bir tarzda \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmi\u015f maddenin (bir sinir sistemi ve bir beyin) \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcd\u00fcrler; d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce kendi kategorilerini kendi i\u00e7inden de\u011fil, kendisini bize duyular\u0131m\u0131z arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla bildiren nesnel d\u00fcnyadan \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131r.<\/p>\n

En eski Yunan filozoflar\u0131 \u201chilozoistler\u201d olarak (Yunancadan, \u201cmaddenin canl\u0131 oldu\u011funa inananlar\u201d anlam\u0131nda) biliniyorlard\u0131. Burada, d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncenin geli\u015fimine \u00f6nc\u00fcl\u00fck eden uzun bir kahramanlar dizisi ile kar\u015f\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131yay\u0131z. Yunanl\u0131lar Kolomb\u2019dan \u00e7ok \u00f6nce d\u00fcnyan\u0131n yuvarlak oldu\u011funu ke\u015ffettiler. Darwin\u2019den \u00e7ok \u00f6nce insanlar\u0131n bal\u0131klardan evrildi\u011fini a\u00e7\u0131klad\u0131lar. Matematikte, \u00f6zellikle geometride, bin be\u015f y\u00fcz y\u0131l boyunca \u00fczerine \u00f6nemli bir \u015fey konulmayan ola\u011fan\u00fcst\u00fc bulu\u015flar yapt\u0131lar. Mekani\u011fi icat ettiler ve hatta bir buhar makinesi yapt\u0131lar. D\u00fcnyaya bu bak\u0131\u015f tarz\u0131nda \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 bi\u00e7imde yeni olan \u015fey, onun dinsel olmay\u0131\u015f\u0131yd\u0131. \u00c7ok \u015fey \u00f6\u011frendikleri M\u0131s\u0131rl\u0131lar ve Babillilerin tam tersine Yunanl\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrler, do\u011fa olaylar\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131klamak i\u00e7in tanr\u0131lara ve tanr\u0131\u00e7alara ba\u015fvurmad\u0131lar. Erkekler ve kad\u0131nlar ilk kez do\u011fan\u0131n i\u015flemlerini salt do\u011fan\u0131n terimleriyle a\u00e7\u0131klamaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yorlard\u0131. Bu insan d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesinin tarihinde en b\u00fcy\u00fck d\u00f6n\u00fcm noktalar\u0131ndan biriydi. Ger\u00e7ek bilimin ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 yer buras\u0131d\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Antik filozoflar\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fc\u011f\u00fc olan Aristoteles, eski hilozoistler kadar tutarl\u0131 olmamas\u0131na ra\u011fmen, bir materyalist olarak g\u00f6r\u00fclebilir. Yunan biliminin \u0130skenderiye d\u00f6nemindeki b\u00fcy\u00fck ba\u015far\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n temelini d\u00f6\u015feyen bir dizi \u00f6nemli bilimsel ke\u015fif yapm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Antik toplumun \u00e7\u00f6k\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnden sonraki Orta\u00e7a\u011f, bilimsel d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnceyi y\u00fczy\u0131llar boyunca cans\u0131zla\u015ft\u0131ran bir \u00e7\u00f6ld\u00fc. Hi\u00e7 de tesad\u00fcf olmayan bir bi\u00e7imde bu d\u00f6nem Kilisenin hakim oldu\u011fu bir d\u00f6nemdi. \u0130dealizm, ya Platon\u2019un bir karikat\u00fcr\u00fc ya da Aristoteles\u2019in en k\u00f6t\u00fc tahrifat\u0131 bi\u00e7iminde, izin verilen yeg\u00e2ne felsefeydi.<\/p>\n

R\u00f6nesans d\u00f6neminde muzafferane bi\u00e7imde yeniden dirilen bilim, dinin etkisine kar\u015f\u0131 (s\u0131ras\u0131 gelmi\u015fken, sadece Katolikli\u011fe kar\u015f\u0131 de\u011fil, Protestanl\u0131\u011fa kar\u015f\u0131 da) sert bir sava\u015f vermek zorunda kald\u0131. Bir\u00e7ok \u015fehit, bilim \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fcn bedelini kendi ya\u015famlar\u0131yla \u00f6dedi. Giordano Bruno ate\u015fte yak\u0131ld\u0131. Galileo iki kez Engizisyon \u00f6n\u00fcnde mahkemeye \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131ld\u0131 ve i\u015fkence tehdidi alt\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015flerinden vazge\u00e7meye \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131ld\u0131.<\/p>\n

R\u00f6nesans\u0131n ba\u015fat felsefi ak\u0131m\u0131 materyalizmdi. \u0130ngiltere\u2019de bu, ampirizm (t\u00fcm bilginin duyulardan kaynakland\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 savunan d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce okulu) bi\u00e7imini ald\u0131.* Bu okulun \u00f6nc\u00fcleri Francis Bacon (1561-1626), Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) ve John Locke (1632-1704) idi. Materyalist okul, \u0130ngiltere\u2019den, devrimci bir i\u00e7erik kazand\u0131\u011f\u0131 Fransa\u2019ya ge\u00e7ti. Diderot, Rousseau, Holbach ve Helvetius\u2019un ellerinde felsefe t\u00fcm mevcut toplumu ele\u015ftirmenin bir arac\u0131 haline geldi. Bu b\u00fcy\u00fck d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrler 1789-1793\u2019te feodal monar\u015finin devrimci y\u0131k\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131n yolunu haz\u0131rlad\u0131lar.<\/p>\n

Yeni felsefi g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fler deney ve g\u00f6zlemi te\u015fvik ederek bilimin geli\u015fimini h\u0131zland\u0131rd\u0131lar. 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l bilimde b\u00fcy\u00fck bir at\u0131l\u0131ma tan\u0131k oldu, \u00f6zellikle mekanikte. Ama bu olgunun olumlu oldu\u011fu kadar olumsuz bir yan\u0131 da vard\u0131. Eski 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l materyalizmi, bilimin bizatihi s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 geli\u015fimini yans\u0131t\u0131rcas\u0131na dar ve kat\u0131yd\u0131. Newton, ampirizmin s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 \u00fcnl\u00fc \u201chi\u00e7bir hipotezim yok\u201d s\u00f6z\u00fcyle ifade etmi\u015fti. Bu tek yanl\u0131 mekanik bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n, nihayetinde eski materyalizm i\u00e7in \u00f6l\u00fcmc\u00fcl oldu\u011fu ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. Paradoksal olarak, felsefede 1700\u2019den sonraki b\u00fcy\u00fck ilerlemeler idealist filozoflar taraf\u0131ndan kaydedilmi\u015ftir.<\/p>\n

Frans\u0131z devriminin etkisiyle Alman idealisti Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) \u00f6nceki t\u00fcm felsefeyi topyek\u00fbn bir ele\u015ftiriden ge\u00e7irdi. Kant sadece felsefe ve mant\u0131kta de\u011fil bilimde de \u00f6nemli ke\u015fifler yapt\u0131. Onun g\u00fcne\u015f sisteminin k\u00f6kenlerine ili\u015fkin Bulutsu [nebula] hipotezi (daha sonra Laplace taraf\u0131ndan matematiksel bir temele kavu\u015fturuldu) \u015fu anda genel olarak do\u011fru kabul edilmektedir. Felsefe alan\u0131nda, Kant\u2019\u0131n ba\u015fyap\u0131t\u0131 Saf Akl\u0131n Ele\u015ftirisi, Aristoteles taraf\u0131ndan ilk geli\u015ftirildi\u011fi g\u00fcnden bu yana ger\u00e7ekte de\u011fi\u015fmeden kalm\u0131\u015f olan mant\u0131k bi\u00e7imlerini analiz eden ilk \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmayd\u0131. Kant felsefenin en temel kabullerinin \u00e7o\u011funda \u00f6rt\u00fck olarak varolan \u00e7eli\u015fkileri g\u00f6sterdi. Gelgelelim bu \u00e7eli\u015fkileri (\u201c\u00e7at\u0131\u015fk\u0131lar\u0131\u201d) \u00e7\u00f6zmeyi beceremedi, ve sonunda d\u00fcnyan\u0131n ger\u00e7ek bilgisinin olanaks\u0131z oldu\u011fu sonucunu \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131. G\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fc\u015fleri bilmek m\u00fcmk\u00fcnse de, \u015feylerin \u201ckendinde\u201d nas\u0131l olduklar\u0131n\u0131 bilmemiz asla m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fildir.<\/p>\n

Bu fikir yeni de\u011fildir. Felsefe tarihinde defalarca tekrarlanm\u0131\u015f ve genel olarak \u00f6znel idealizm dedi\u011fimiz isimle adland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Ayn\u0131 fikir Kant\u2019tan \u00f6nce \u0130rlan\u00adda\u00adl\u0131 rahip ve filozof George Berkeley ve klasik \u0130ngiliz ampiristlerinin en sonuncusu David Hume taraf\u0131ndan ileri s\u00fcr\u00fclm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. Temel arg\u00fcman \u015f\u00f6yle \u00f6zetlenebilir: \u201cD\u00fcnyay\u0131 duyumlar\u0131m arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131yla yorumlar\u0131m. Bu nedenle, varoldu\u011funu bildi\u011fim tek \u015fey duyu izlenimlerimdir. \u00d6rne\u011fin bu elman\u0131n varoldu\u011funu s\u00f6yleyebilir miyim? Hay\u0131r. T\u00fcm s\u00f6yleyebilece\u011fim, onu g\u00f6rd\u00fc\u011f\u00fcm, hissetti\u011fim, koklad\u0131\u011f\u0131m, tatt\u0131\u011f\u0131md\u0131r. Bu bak\u0131mdan, ger\u00e7ekte bir maddi d\u00fcnyan\u0131n varoldu\u011funu hi\u00e7bir surette s\u00f6yleyemem.\u201d \u00d6znel idealizmin mant\u0131\u011f\u0131na g\u00f6re, e\u011fer g\u00f6zlerimi kaparsam d\u00fcnya varolmaktan \u00e7\u0131kar. Nihayetinde bu solipsizme (Latinceden, \u201csolo ipsus\u201d \u2013\u201ctek ben\u201d), yani sadece ben var\u0131m d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncesine var\u0131r.<\/p>\n

Bu fikirler bize sa\u00e7ma g\u00f6r\u00fcnebilir, ama bunlar tuhaf bi\u00e7imde kal\u0131c\u0131 olmu\u015flard\u0131r. \u00d6znel idealizmin \u00f6nyarg\u0131lar\u0131, \u015fu ya da bu bi\u00e7imde, sadece felsefeye s\u0131zmakla kalmam\u0131\u015f, 20. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc i\u00e7in bilime de s\u0131zm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u0130leride bu e\u011filimle daha \u00f6zel olarak u\u011fra\u015faca\u011f\u0131z.<\/p>\n

En b\u00fcy\u00fck at\u0131l\u0131m 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ilk ony\u0131llar\u0131nda George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831) ile geldi. Hegel yap\u0131tlar\u0131nda b\u00fct\u00fcn felsefe tarihini etkili bi\u00e7imde \u00f6zetleyen, y\u00fcksek zek\u00e2ya sahip bir Alman idealistiydi.<\/p>\n

Hegel, Kant\u2019\u0131n \u201c\u00c7at\u0131\u015fk\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n\u201d \u00fcstesinden gelmenin tek yolunun, \u00e7eli\u015fkilerin sadece d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcncede de\u011fil, ger\u00e7ek d\u00fcnyada, fiilen varoldu\u011funu kabul etmek oldu\u011funu g\u00f6sterdi. Bir nesnel idealist olarak Hegel\u2019in, insan akl\u0131n\u0131n ger\u00e7ek d\u00fcnyay\u0131 bilemeyece\u011fine dair \u00f6znel idealist arg\u00fcmana tahamm\u00fcl\u00fc yoktu. D\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce bi\u00e7imlerinin nesnel d\u00fcnyay\u0131 m\u00fcmk\u00fcn oldu\u011fu \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde yak\u0131ndan yans\u0131tmas\u0131 gerekir. Bilgi s\u00fcreci, soyuttan somuta, bilinenden bilinmeyene, \u00f6zelden evrensele do\u011fru ilerleyerek, bu ger\u00e7ekli\u011fe gitgide daha derinlemesine girmekten ibarettir.<\/p>\n

Antik d\u00f6nemde, \u00f6zellikle Herakleitos\u2019un (\u0130.\u00d6. 500) naif, fakat parlak \u00f6zdeyi\u015flerinde, ama ayn\u0131 zamanda Aristoteles\u2019te ve di\u011ferlerinde de b\u00fcy\u00fck bir rol oynayan diyalektik d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme y\u00f6ntemi, kilisenin Aristoteles\u2019in bi\u00e7imsel mant\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 cans\u0131z ve kat\u0131 bir dogmaya \u00e7evirdi\u011fi Orta\u00e7a\u011fda terk edildi ve Kant\u2019\u0131n ona itibar\u0131n\u0131 iade etmesine kadar tekrar g\u00f6r\u00fcnmedi. Ne var ki diyalektik Kant\u2019ta yeterli bir geli\u015fme g\u00f6stermedi. Diyalektik d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme bilimini en y\u00fcksek geli\u015fme noktas\u0131na \u00e7\u0131karmak Hegel\u2019e d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc.<\/p>\n

Hakim mekanizm felsefesine tek ba\u015f\u0131na kafa tutmas\u0131 olgusu Hegel\u2019in b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc g\u00f6stermeye yeter. Yal\u0131t\u0131k olaylarla de\u011fil s\u00fcre\u00e7lerle u\u011fra\u015fan Hegel\u2019in diyalektik felsefesi, \u015feyleri \u00f6l\u00fc olarak de\u011fil canl\u0131 olarak, yal\u0131t\u0131k de\u011fil kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 etkileri i\u00e7inde ele al\u0131r. Bu felsefe, d\u00fcnyaya bakman\u0131n \u015fa\u015f\u0131rt\u0131c\u0131 \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde modern ve bilimsel bir yoludur. Ger\u00e7ekten Hegel bir\u00e7ok bak\u0131mdan zaman\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7ok \u00f6tesindeydi. Yine de, bir\u00e7ok parlak sezgilerine ra\u011fmen, Hegel\u2019in felsefesi nihai \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde tatmin edici de\u011fildi. Ba\u015fl\u0131ca kusuru, Hegel\u2019in kesin bi\u00e7imde idealist olan bak\u0131\u015f a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131yd\u0131, bu da onu diyalektik d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnme y\u00f6ntemini ger\u00e7ek d\u00fcnyaya bilimsel bir bi\u00e7imde tutarl\u0131l\u0131kla uygulamaktan al\u0131koyuyordu. Maddi d\u00fcnya yerine, ger\u00e7ek \u015feylerin, s\u00fcre\u00e7lerin ve insanlar\u0131n maddi olmayan g\u00f6lgelerle yer de\u011fi\u015ftirdi\u011fi Mutlak \u0130dea\u2019n\u0131n d\u00fcnyas\u0131 s\u00f6z konusuydu. Friedrich Engels\u2019in s\u00f6zleriyle, Hegel diyalekti\u011fi t\u00fcm felsefe tarihinde bo\u015fa \u00e7\u0131kan en b\u00fcy\u00fck beklentiydi. Burada do\u011fru fikirler ba\u015fa\u015fa\u011f\u0131 duruyordu. Diyalekti\u011fi sa\u011flam bir temele oturtmak i\u00e7in, Hegel\u2019i ba\u015fa\u015fa\u011f\u0131 \u00e7evirmek, idealist diyalekti\u011fi diyalektik materyalizme d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrmek gerekir. Bu Karl Marx\u2019\u0131n ve Friedrich Engels\u2019in b\u00fcy\u00fck ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131d\u0131r. \u0130ncelememiz, onlar taraf\u0131ndan geli\u015ftirilen materyalist diyalek\u00adti\u011fin temel yasalar\u0131n\u0131n k\u0131sa bir d\u00f6k\u00fcm\u00fcyle ba\u015flamaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

[1] Gordon Childe, What Happened in History, s.19. [Tarihte Neler Oldu, Alan Y., Ekim 1982, s.15]<\/p>\n

* Paleontoloji: Fosilleri ve di\u011fer \u00e7ok eski zamanlara ait ya\u015fam kay\u0131tlar\u0131n\u0131 inceleyen bilim dal\u0131.<\/p>\n

[2] Gordon Childe, age, s.19-20. [age, s.15]<\/p>\n

[3]Sir James Frazer, Golden Bough, s.10. [Alt\u0131n Dal, cilt 1, Payel Y., Aral\u0131k 1991, s.10]<\/p>\n

[4]Sir James Frazer, Golden Bough, s.105.<\/p>\n

[5] Ludwig Feuerbach, The Essence of Christianity (H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n \u00d6z\u00fc), s.5.<\/p>\n

[6] Aristoteles, Metaphysics, s.53. [Metafizik, Sosyal Y., Kas\u0131m 1996, s.79]<\/p>\n

[7] I. Prigogine ve I. Stengers, Order Out of Kaos, Man\u2019s New Dialogue with Nature, s.4. [Kaostan D\u00fczene, \u0130nsan\u0131n Tabiatla Yeni Diyalo\u011fu, \u0130z Y., 1996, s.37]<\/p>\n

[8] aktaran: Margaret Donaldson, Children\u2019s Minds (\u00c7ocuklar\u0131n Zihinleri), s.84.<\/p>\n

[9] Oeconomicus, iv, 203, aktaran: B. Farrington, Greek Science (Yunan Bilimi), s.28-9.<\/p>\n

[10] Ludwig Feuerbach, The Essence of Christianity, s.204-5.<\/p>\n

[11] aktaran: A. R. Burn, Pelican History of Greece (Pelican Yunan Tarihi), s.132.<\/p>\n

[12] G. Childe, Man Makes Himself, s.107-8. [Kendini Yaratan \u0130nsan, Varl\u0131k Y., 1992, s.80-1]<\/p>\n

* Ampirizm: Bilgi teorisinde, duyusal deneyimin bilginin yeg\u00e2ne kayna\u011f\u0131 oldu\u011funu savunan ve t\u00fcm bilginin deneye dayand\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ve deneyden elde edildi\u011fini onaylayan bir \u00f6\u011freti. Rasyonalizmin kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131. Bu \u00f6\u011fretinin temel hatas\u0131, tek ba\u015f\u0131na deneyimin rol\u00fcn\u00fcn metafizik bir abart\u0131l\u0131\u015f\u0131 ad\u0131na, bir sonu\u00e7 \u00e7\u0131karma arac\u0131 olarak akl\u0131n reddedilmesi e\u011filiminde olu\u015fudur.<\/p><\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Felsefeye \u0130htiyac\u0131m\u0131z Var m\u0131?Biz ba\u015flamadan \u00f6nce, siz \u015funu sorma iste\u011fi duyuyor olabilirsiniz: \u201cEee, ne olmu\u015f yani?\u201d Bilimin ve felsefenin karma\u015f\u0131k sorunlar\u0131n\u0131 dert etmemiz ger\u00e7ekten gerekli mi? B\u00f6yle bir soruya iki ayr\u0131 cevap verilebilir. E\u011fer kastedilen: g\u00fcndelik ya\u015fant\u0131m\u0131z\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmek i\u00e7in b\u00f6yle \u015feyleri bilmemizin gerekip gerekmedi\u011fi ise, yan\u0131t a\u00e7\u0131k olarak hay\u0131rd\u0131r. Ama e\u011fer i\u00e7inde ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z d\u00fcnyay\u0131 ve […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[54],"tags":[],"class_list":{"0":"post-467","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","6":"category-din"},"yoast_head":"\nFelsefe ve Din | Alan Woods - Ted Grant - narteks.net<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2010\/03\/12\/felsefe-ve-din-alan-woods-ted-grant\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"tr_TR\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Felsefe ve Din | Alan Woods - Ted Grant\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Felsefeye \u0130htiyac\u0131m\u0131z Var m\u0131?Biz ba\u015flamadan \u00f6nce, siz \u015funu sorma iste\u011fi duyuyor olabilirsiniz: \u201cEee, ne olmu\u015f yani?\u201d Bilimin ve felsefenin karma\u015f\u0131k sorunlar\u0131n\u0131 dert etmemiz ger\u00e7ekten gerekli mi? 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