{"id":4767,"date":"2010-11-03T11:48:46","date_gmt":"2010-11-03T08:48:46","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/localhost\/wordpress\/2010\/11\/03\/3kisim-4-bolum-afrika-kitasindaki-devletler\/"},"modified":"2010-11-03T11:48:46","modified_gmt":"2010-11-03T08:48:46","slug":"3kisim-4-bolum-afrika-kitasindaki-devletler","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2010\/11\/03\/3kisim-4-bolum-afrika-kitasindaki-devletler\/","title":{"rendered":"3.K\u0131s\u0131m , 4. B\u00f6l\u00fcm | Afrika K\u0131tas\u0131ndaki Devletler"},"content":{"rendered":"

AFR\u0130KA KITASINDAK\u0130 DEVLETLER
Bu d\u00f6nemde, g\u00f6zkama\u015ft\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 uygarl\u0131klar, Afrika k\u0131tas\u0131nda Sahra’n\u0131n g\u00fcneyinde de geli\u015fiyor. Feodal devletler ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yor.
13. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda, Gana devleti, Soso kabilelerinin ak\u0131nlar\u0131 sonunda, ge\u00e7mi\u015fteki \u00f6nemini yitirdi. Yava\u015f yava\u015f, Malinkelerin ya\u015fad\u0131klar\u0131 devlet, Mali, Gana’n\u0131n yerini ald\u0131. K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir prenslik olarak Mali, Nijerya ile Bakkon aras\u0131nda 11. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan beri vard\u0131. Tar\u0131m\u0131n, \u00f6zellikle pamuk\u00e7ulu\u011fun ilerlemesi, alt\u0131n madenlerinin i\u015fletilmesi, zanaat\u00e7\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fcmesi ve ticaretin geni\u015flemesi, Mali’nin g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc sa\u011flamla\u015ft\u0131rmas\u0131na katk\u0131da bulundu. 1240’ta, Mali reislerinden biri Sundiata (Mari-Diata) Gana birliklerini ezdi ve ba\u015fkentini y\u0131kt\u0131.
13. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonunda, Mali devletinin ba\u015fkenti Mali, b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ticaret merkezi oldu. Mali, G\u00fcney Akdeniz \u00fclkeleriyle geni\u015f ticaret ve k\u00fclt\u00fcr ili\u015fkileri s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcyordu. Kom\u015fu kabilelerin ak\u0131nlar\u0131na ve bu devleti zay\u0131flatan hanedan ge\u00e7imsizliklerine kar\u015f\u0131n, Mali 17. y\u00fczy\u0131la de\u011fin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrd\u00fc. Bu y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ilk yar\u0131s\u0131nda Songayi, Fulbe ve Bambara kabilelerinin sald\u0131r\u0131lar\u0131, Mali’nin \u00e7\u00f6k\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcn nedeni oldu. Bu \u00e7a\u011fda, Songayi kabilesi taraf\u0131ndan kurulan. Bat\u0131 Sudan’\u0131n do\u011fu kesiminde yerle\u015fmi\u015f feodal bir devlet geli\u015fti. [sayfa 212] Songayi dili, \u00e7ok \u00f6zg\u00fcn bir dildir ve b\u00fct\u00fcn \u00f6teki Afrika dillerinden temelden ayr\u0131l\u0131r.
\u0130lk Songayi devletleri, 14. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonlar\u0131 ve 15. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015flar\u0131 tarihlerini ta\u015f\u0131rlar. 16. y\u00fczy\u0131lda, Songayi’nin ellerinde bulunan topraklar, Nijer suyunun kaynaklar\u0131ndan Bussa \u00e7a\u011flayanlar\u0131na, kuzeyde Sahra’dan, g\u00fcneyde Bobo ve Mossi \u00fclkelerine de\u011fin yay\u0131l\u0131yordu. Songayi \u00fclkesinde, \u00f6teki Sudan devletlerinde oldu\u011fu gibi, k\u00f6le eme\u011fi, \u00f6nemli bir rol oynuyordu. Bununla birlikte, \u00e7o\u011fu kez, k\u00f6lelere de bir toprak pay\u0131 veriliyor ve say\u0131lar\u0131 pek \u00e7ok olan serf-k\u00f6yl\u00fcler \u00f6rne\u011fine uygun olarak, ayn\u00ee-rant \u00f6demekle y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fc tutuyorlard\u0131. K\u00f6lelerin \u00e7ocuklar\u0131, diogoraniler, her ne kadar gene k\u00f6le ad\u0131n\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131yorlarsa da, ikinci ya da ondan sonraki ku\u015faktan ba\u015flayarak baz\u0131 haklar elde ediyorlard\u0131. \u00d6rne\u011fin ba\u015fkas\u0131na sat\u0131lam\u0131yorlard\u0131. K\u00f6leler, diogoraniler ve serf-k\u00f6yl\u00fcler gibi, s\u0131k s\u0131k isyan ediyorlard\u0131.
Songayi y\u00f6neticileri ile Fas sultan\u0131 aras\u0131nda bir y\u00fczy\u0131l s\u00fcrecek olan \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131, 16. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015flar\u0131na de\u011fin uzan\u0131r. Songayi krallar\u0131 \u00fcst\u00fcn geliyordu. Ama, Songayi devleti, o denli zay\u0131flad\u0131 ki, 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonunda da\u011f\u0131l\u0131p par\u00e7aland\u0131.
17. y\u00fczy\u0131l, Benin’in, bug\u00fcnk\u00fc G\u00fcney Nijerya topraklan \u00fczerinde yerle\u015fmi\u015f olan devletin a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131p geli\u015fme \u00e7a\u011f\u0131d\u0131r. Bu b\u00f6lgelerde oturan Yoroba ve Eoto halklar\u0131, y\u00fczy\u0131llar boyunca \u00e7ok geli\u015fmi\u015f bir k\u00fclt\u00fcr yaratt\u0131lar.
Kongo devleti b\u00fcy\u00fck bir feodal devlet oldu. 15. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan 18. y\u00fczy\u0131la de\u011fin, a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131p geli\u015fme \u00e7a\u011f\u0131nda Kongo topraklar\u0131, do\u011fuda Kuango akarsuyuna, g\u00fcneyde Kuanza’ya, bat\u0131da Atlantik Okyanusuna ve Kongo \u0131rma\u011f\u0131n\u0131n 500-600 km. kuzeyine de\u011fin yay\u0131l\u0131yordu. Bu topraklarda akraba olan kabileler: Bakongolar, Bas\u00fcndiler, Meyobeler vb. ya\u015famaktayd\u0131. Resm\u00ee dil, Ki\u015fikongo idi.
K\u00f6le eme\u011fi, burada \u00f6nemli bir rol oynuyordu. K\u00f6leler en a\u011f\u0131r ve en baya\u011f\u0131 i\u015fleri yap\u0131yorlard\u0131. \u00c7e\u015fitli alanlarda [sayfa 213] uzmanla\u015fm\u0131\u015f zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar vard\u0131. Ticaret elveri\u015fliydi. Kongo’nun kom\u015fusu olan \u00fclkelerde (g\u00fcneyde ve g\u00fcney-do\u011fuda), Angola’da ve Monomotapa’da da toplumsal ili\u015fkiler benzer nitelikteydiler.<\/p>\n

DO\u011eU AKDEN\u0130Z \u00dcLKELER\u0130NE ASKER\u00ce S\u00d6M\u00dcRGELE\u015eT\u0130RME SEFERLER\u0130 (HA\u00c7LILAR)
Kentlerin ve ticaretin geli\u015fmesi, Bat\u0131 Avrupa ya\u015fam\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7ok \u00e7e\u015fitli y\u00f6nleri \u00fczerinde etkisini g\u00f6steriyordu. Bu etki, Bat\u0131 Avrupa toplumu \u00e7er\u00e7evesini de a\u015f\u0131yordu. Yeni \u00e7a\u011f, bu \u00fclkelere, \u00f6teki b\u00f6lgelerle, her \u015feyden \u00f6nce Do\u011fu Akdenizin m\u00fcsl\u00fcman \u00fclkeleriyle ili\u015fkilerin niteli\u011fi \u00fczerine, Bat\u0131 Avrupa \u00fclkelerinde oldu\u011fu kadar, Do\u011fu \u00fclkelerinde de \u00e7e\u015fitli s\u0131n\u0131f ve tabakalar\u0131n benimsedikleri davran\u0131\u015flar bak\u0131m\u0131ndan kendi damgas\u0131n\u0131 vuruyordu.
MS 2. biny\u0131llar\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015flar\u0131, ha\u00e7l\u0131 seferleriyle, Bat\u0131 Avrupal\u0131 feodallerin, Do\u011fu Akdeniz \u00fclkelerine yapt\u0131klar\u0131 sald\u0131r\u0131 seferleriyle dikkati \u00e7eker.
Bat\u0131 Avrupa’da yo\u011funla\u015fm\u0131\u015f olan, daha yukarda anlatt\u0131\u011f\u0131m\u0131z feodal s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fc, k\u00f6yl\u00fcleri, kendi durumlar\u0131n\u0131 d\u00fczeltecek \u00e7areler aramaya zorluyordu. Bu \u00e7arelerden biri, k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin, ki\u015fi olarak daha \u00f6zg\u00fcr olduklar\u0131 ve feodal bask\u0131n\u0131n hissedilecek kadar daha hafif oldu\u011fu i\u015flenmemi\u015f topraklar \u00fczerine aktar\u0131lmalar\u0131, i\u00e7 s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecilik oldu. Bununla birlikte, bu aktar\u0131lmalar ne denli \u00f6nemli olursa olsun, bir geni\u015flik kazanamazd\u0131.
Do\u011funun masallara \u00f6zg\u00fc zenginlikleri \u00fczerine yarat\u0131lan efsaneler, k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin hayalg\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc gittik\u00e7e daha \u00e7ok kurcal\u0131yordu. Bu efsaneler, Avrupal\u0131 tacirlerin ve “\u0130sa’n\u0131n mezar\u0131” bulunan Kud\u00fcs’\u00fc ziyaret eden h\u0131ristiyan hac\u0131lar\u0131n anlat\u0131lar\u0131ndan kaynaklan\u0131yordu. Do\u011fu Akdeniz \u00fclkeleri, feodalleri de \u00e7ekiyordu, ama bunun nedenleri ba\u015fkayd\u0131.
Kal\u0131tsal yurtluklar sistemi, yeni bir miras sisteminin yerle\u015fmesiyle, b\u00fcy\u00fck o\u011ful hakk\u0131n\u0131n yerle\u015fmesiyle g\u00fc\u00e7lendi. [sayfa 214] Miras, babadan b\u00fcy\u00fck o\u011fula ge\u00e7iyordu, k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck o\u011fullar ise mals\u0131z m\u00fclks\u00fcz kal\u0131yorlar, yeni topraklar\u0131n ya\u011fmas\u0131 ile zenginle\u015fmeye bakan yoksul \u015f\u00f6valyeler y\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturuyorlard\u0131. Do\u011fu, \u015f\u00f6valyeleri de \u00e7ekiyordu. Avrupa ve Akdeniz kentlerinin tacirleri, \u00f6zellikle \u0130talyanlar, K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck Asya’daki ve Kuzey Afrika’daki konumlar\u0131n\u0131 sa\u011flamla\u015ft\u0131rmak, bu pazarlarda egemen duruma ge\u00e7mek istiyorlard\u0131. Yeni topraklar ve yeni uyruklar isteyen Avrupa h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar\u0131, Do\u011fu \u00fclkelerinin zenginliklerine g\u00f6zdikiyorlard\u0131. Feodaller ve varl\u0131kl\u0131 tacirler s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7e\u015fitli tabakalar\u0131n\u0131n, ya\u011fma amac\u0131yla birle\u015fmi\u015f olan temsilcileri, G\u00fcney ve Do\u011fu Akdeniz \u00fclkelerine yap\u0131lacak asker\u00ee bir seferin haz\u0131rl\u0131klar\u0131na etkin bi\u00e7imde kat\u0131ld\u0131lar.
\u00d6zellikle Roma Katolik Kilisesi, bu haz\u0131rl\u0131klarda, etkin bir rol oynad\u0131. Papal\u0131\u011f\u0131n h\u00fck\u00fcmet \u00f6rg\u00fct\u00fc (Curie Romaine), yeni topraklar\u0131n zorla h\u0131ristiyanla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 ile gelirlerinin bir hayli artaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 umuyor, Do\u011fu Yunan Kilisesini yutmak istiyordu; ki bu da, Vatikan’\u0131n siyasal program\u0131n\u0131n en \u00f6nemli noktalar\u0131ndan biriydi.
Papal\u0131\u011f\u0131n h\u00fck\u00fcmet \u00f6rg\u00fct\u00fc, m\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlara kar\u015f\u0131 bir ha\u00e7l\u0131 seferi arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile \u0130sa’n\u0131n mezar\u0131n\u0131n kurtar\u0131lmas\u0131 slogan\u0131n\u0131 ortaya att\u0131. Bu sefere kat\u0131lanlar\u0131n g\u00fcnahlar\u0131 ba\u011f\u0131\u015flan\u0131yor, bor\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6demeleri i\u00e7in kendilerine bir s\u00fcre tan\u0131n\u0131yor ve ba\u015fka kolayl\u0131klar g\u00f6steriliyordu.
Kilise, b\u00f6ylece, yeni topraklar\u0131 kendine maletmek istiyordu. H\u0131ristiyan prenslerin yurtluklar\u0131n\u0131n geni\u015flemesi, kiliseye ek gelir sa\u011fl\u0131yordu.
\u00c7o\u011fu kez, ha\u00e7l\u0131larla birlikte sefere \u00e7\u0131kan feodaller, toprak tasarruflar\u0131 da dahil olmak \u00fczere, kendi mallar\u0131n\u0131 kiliseye ba\u011f\u0131\u015fl\u0131yorlar ya da onun himayesine b\u0131rak\u0131yorlard\u0131. Onun i\u00e7in katolik rahipler, Ha\u00e7l\u0131 Seferleriyle gittik\u00e7e daha \u00e7ok ilgileniyorlard\u0131. [sayfa 215]<\/p>\n

B\u0130R\u0130NC\u0130 HA\u00c7LI SEFER\u0130
Sel\u00e7uklu T\u00fcrklerinin fetihleri, Abbas\u00ee hil\u00e2fetinin da\u011f\u0131l\u0131p par\u00e7alanmas\u0131n\u0131n ve Bizans’\u0131n iyice zay\u0131flamas\u0131n\u0131n nedeni oldu. Yeni topraklar ele ge\u00e7irmenin art\u0131k pek b\u00fcy\u00fck g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fcklerle kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fmayaca\u011f\u0131 kan\u0131s\u0131 uyanm\u0131\u015ft\u0131.
Birinci Ha\u00e7l\u0131 Seferi, tipik bir asker\u00ee feodal seferdi ve 1096’da yap\u0131ld\u0131. Sefer, daha 1095’te, Fransa’da, Clermont ruhan\u00ee meclisinde il\u00e2n edilmi\u015fti. Ya\u011fmalama niyetleri, “k\u00e2firlere” kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131lar\u0131 ile gizlenmi\u015fti. Egemen s\u0131n\u0131f, dinsel ba\u011fnazl\u0131\u011f\u0131 k\u00f6r\u00fckleyerek, k\u00f6yl\u00fcler ile aralar\u0131ndaki uzla\u015fmaz kar\u015f\u0131tl\u0131klar\u0131 hafifletmeyi ve olas\u0131 ho\u015fnutsuzluklar\u0131n do\u011fu\u015funu \u00f6nlemeyi umuyordu.
K\u00f6yl\u00fcl\u00fck, kentlerin yoksul halk\u0131, i\u00e7g\u00fcd\u00fcsel olarak, feodallerin etkisinden kendilerini kurtarmay\u0131 ve Ha\u00e7l\u0131 Seferi s\u0131ras\u0131nda her \u015feyden \u00f6nce seny\u00f6rlerin bask\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 sarsmay\u0131, feodaller aras\u0131 i\u00e7 sava\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131n sonucu olan y\u0131k\u0131mlar\u0131 \u00f6nlemeyi diliyorlard\u0131. Birinci feodal ha\u00e7l\u0131 seferinden \u00f6nce gelen yoksullar\u0131n seferini, buna kan\u0131t olarak g\u00f6sterebiliriz.
1096 ilkyaz\u0131nda, daha \u00e7ok Fransa’n\u0131n kuzeyinden gelen k\u00f6yl\u00fc kalabal\u0131klar\u0131, “Kutsal Toprak”a do\u011fru hareket ettiler. Yoksulluktan ve y\u0131k\u0131mdan, kurtuluvereceklerini umuyorlard\u0131. \u00d6rg\u00fctlenmemi\u015f, silahs\u0131z y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar, kad\u0131nlar, \u00e7ocuklar, ya\u015fl\u0131larla birlikte, hi\u00e7bir ge\u00e7im arac\u0131na sahip olmaks\u0131z\u0131n, dilencilikle, oradan buradan h\u0131rs\u0131zl\u0131k ederek g\u00f6\u00e7\u00fcyorlard\u0131. Sonunda, ge\u00e7tikleri \u00fclkelerin halklar\u0131, olanlardan onlar\u0131 sorumlu tuttular. Pek \u00e7ok k\u00f6yl\u00fc, \u00f6l\u00fcp gitti.<\/p>\n

HA\u00c7LI SEFERLER\u0130N\u0130N TOPRA\u011eA \u0130L\u0130\u015eK\u0130N VE \u0130KT\u0130SAD\u00ce SONU\u00c7LARI
1096’dan 1270’e de\u011fin, sekiz \u00f6nemli ha\u00e7l\u0131 seferine giri\u015fildi. Ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta, ha\u00e7l\u0131lar, Do\u011fu Akdenizin ele ge\u00e7irilen topraklar\u0131nda birka\u00e7 tipik feodal devlet kurdular. Seferlere kat\u0131lan k\u00f6yl\u00fcler, toprak elde edemediler. Yerel m\u00fcsl\u00fcman halk ac\u0131mas\u0131zca s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc. K\u00f6lele\u015ftirilen halklar\u0131 ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 durumda [sayfa 216] tutabilmek i\u00e7in \u015f\u00f6valye birlikleri kuruldu: asker\u00ee birlikler, tampl tarikat\u0131ndan, ospitaliye tarikat\u0131ndan, t\u00f6tonlar tarikat\u0131ndan olanlar\u0131n dinsel birlikleri gibi.
\u00d6nemli zararlara u\u011frayan, yaln\u0131zca Asya’da ve Kuzey Afrika’da ha\u00e7l\u0131lar taraf\u0131ndan istil\u00e2 edilen m\u00fcsl\u00fcman \u00fclkelerin halk\u0131 ve k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fc de\u011fildi; \u00f6rne\u011fin Bizans gibi h\u0131ristiyan devletler de s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecilerin asker\u00ee seferlerinden b\u00fcy\u00fck s\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131 \u00e7ektiler.
Sonunda, ba\u015fkald\u0131ran halklar\u0131n bask\u0131s\u0131 alt\u0131nda, ha\u00e7l\u0131lar, Do\u011fu Akdenizi b\u0131rak\u0131p gitmek zorunda kald\u0131lar.
Bununla birlikte, Ha\u00e7l\u0131 Seferleri, Bat\u0131 Avrupa’da izler b\u0131rakt\u0131. Akdenizin do\u011fu ve bat\u0131 kesimleri aras\u0131nda ticaret ba\u011flar\u0131n\u0131n g\u00fc\u00e7lenmesine yard\u0131m etti; b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle, Avrupa’da, meta-para ili\u015fkilerine uygun bir ortam yaratt\u0131.
Do\u011fu seferleri s\u0131ras\u0131nda, ha\u00e7l\u0131lar, o zamana de\u011fin Bat\u0131 Avrupa’da tan\u0131nmayan \u00f6nemli k\u00fclt\u00fcrel ve teknik ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmelerle i\u00e7li-d\u0131\u015fl\u0131 oldular. Yeni \u00fcretim dallar\u0131, \u00f6zellikle ipek\u00e7ilik, geli\u015fmeye ba\u015fl\u0131yor. Silah yap\u0131m tekni\u011fi ve ba\u015fka maden\u00ee e\u015fyalar yap\u0131m\u0131 yetkinle\u015fiyor. Kuma\u015f \u00fcretimi geli\u015ftiriliyor vb.. Yeni tar\u0131m kollar\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yor: pirin\u00e7, karabu\u011fday, kavun, vb..
Feodallerin, Do\u011fu Akdenizde, daha y\u00fcksek madd\u00ee bir k\u00fclt\u00fcrle temas etmeleri, onlar\u0131n gereksinmesini art\u0131rd\u0131, ve, sonu\u00e7 olarak, halk y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc a\u011f\u0131rla\u015ft\u0131rd\u0131. Ve bu, Bat\u0131 Avrupa’da, 13. ve 14. y\u00fczy\u0131llarda, toplumsal \u00e7eli\u015fkilerin keskinle\u015fmesinin nedenlerinden biri oldu.<\/p>\n

6. FEODAL TOPLUMLARIN \u0130DEOLOJ\u0130S\u0130 VE UYGARLI\u011eI<\/p>\n

D\u0130N\u0130N VE K\u0130L\u0130SEN\u0130N ROL\u00dc
Emek\u00e7i y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar \u00fczerindeki egemenli\u011fini sa\u011flamla\u015ft\u0131rmak i\u00e7in, feodal seny\u00f6rler s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131, iktisad\u00ee s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fc ve siyasal k\u00f6lele\u015ftirme ile yetinmiyordu. \u0130deolojik etki, en iyi silahlar\u0131ndan biriydi. Ve feodal toplumun ideolojisinde kesin rol, dine ve kiliseye d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcyordu. Yery\u00fcz\u00fcnde \u00e7ekilen ac\u0131lar\u0131n [sayfa 217] \u00f6d\u00fcl\u00fc olarak g\u00f6klerde mutluluk vaatleriyle kilise, halk y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131, seny\u00f6rlere kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131mdan sapt\u0131r\u0131yor, halka, bilin\u00e7li olarak yumu\u015fakba\u015fl\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve boyune\u011fmeyi a\u015f\u0131l\u0131yordu. B\u00fct\u00fcn manev\u00ee ya\u015fam\u0131n dinden esinlendi\u011fi bu \u00e7a\u011fda, kilise, y\u00fcr\u00fcrl\u00fckte olan toplumsal d\u00fczeni, emek\u00e7ilerin, k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin ve zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fclmesini kendi sayg\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile g\u00fcven alt\u0131na al\u0131yordu.
Orta\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n b\u00fct\u00fcn uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131, dinin ve kilisenin derin damgas\u0131n\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n

KATOL\u0130K K\u0130L\u0130SES\u0130
Katoliklik, feodal toplumun ba\u011fr\u0131nda dinin ve kilisenin rol\u00fcn\u00fcn klasik bir \u00f6rne\u011fini verir. Bilindi\u011fi gibi, h\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k, Roma imparatorlar\u0131 zaman\u0131nda k\u00f6le sahiplerinin resm\u00ee dini olmu\u015ftu. Orta\u00e7a\u011fda iktidardaki s\u0131n\u0131f, h\u0131ristiyan kilisesini kendi ideolojik kalesi yapm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. 11. y\u00fczy\u0131lda, Do\u011fu Kilisesi ile Bat\u0131 Kilisesinin kesin olarak birbirlerinden kopmas\u0131ndan sonra, katoliklik, b\u00fct\u00fcn Avrupa’da, feodalitenin ideolojik temeli oldu.
Katolik Kilisesi, yap\u0131lar\u0131na var\u0131ncaya de\u011fin, feodalitenin hiyerar\u015fisini yineliyordu. Ba\u015f\u0131nda, papa ve papal\u0131\u011f\u0131n h\u00fck\u00fcmet \u00f6rg\u00fct\u00fc bulunuyordu. Ondan sonra, kardinaller, evekler, abbeler vb. geliyordu. Bu merdivenin en alt basama\u011f\u0131nda ruhan\u00ee b\u00f6lgelerin papazlar\u0131 bulunuyordu.
Kilisenin kendisi, en b\u00fcy\u00fck toprak sahiplerinden biriydi. B\u00f6ylece Pariste’ki Notre-Dame Ve Hollanda’daki Saint Trond Abbeli\u011fi, Avrupa’n\u0131n en geni\u015f yurtluklar\u0131 aras\u0131nda say\u0131l\u0131yordu. Bunlar i\u00e7inde \u00e7iftlikler, ba\u011flar, ormanlar, otlakl\u0131klar, say\u0131s\u0131z haralar, pek b\u00fcy\u00fck s\u00fcr\u00fcler vard\u0131. Kilise prensleri, bundan ba\u015fka, a\u015far, yani her k\u00f6yl\u00fcn\u00fcn gelirinin onda-birini de al\u0131yorlard\u0131.
K\u00f6yl\u00fclerin ve zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n a\u015f\u0131r\u0131 s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcs\u00fc, kilisenin zenginli\u011finin kayna\u011f\u0131 oldu. [sayfa 218]<\/p>\n

MANEV\u00ce YA\u015eAMDA K\u0130L\u0130SEN\u0130N TEKEL\u0130
Yukar\u0131-orta\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n ve ilerlemi\u015f feodalitenin Bat\u0131 uygarl\u0131\u011f\u0131, kilise d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcn, \u00f6zellikle bunun katolik bi\u00e7iminin etkisine girmi\u015fti.
Katolik tanr\u0131bilimi, antik\u00e7a\u011f felsefesinden uzakla\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Eskiden felsefeye s\u0131k\u0131ca ba\u011fl\u0131 olan matematik ve do\u011fa bilimleri kayboldu. Edebiyat “Azizlerin Ya\u015famlar\u0131”na, tarih, ke\u015fi\u015flerin g\u00fcnl\u00fck notlar\u0131na indirgendi. \u015eiir, m\u00fczik, t\u00fcm plastik sanatlar, kilisenin hizmetinde g\u00f6rev ald\u0131. Okullar, e\u011fitim, rahipler s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n tekelindeydi.
Bu k\u00fclt\u00fcr tekelini, kilise \u00f6yle durup dururken elde etmedi, bir yandan feodal soylularla, \u00f6te yandan da \u00f6zg\u00fcr d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce yanl\u0131lar\u0131, halk y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131 ile \u00e7etin bir sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131n sonunda kazand\u0131. Katolik Kilisesi (geri kalan b\u00fct\u00fcn \u00f6teki kiliseler gibi) halk\u0131n yarat\u0131c\u0131 esinlerini en a\u00e7\u0131k bi\u00e7imde yans\u0131tan mezhep sapk\u0131nl\u0131klar\u0131ndan korkun\u00e7 bir bi\u00e7imde \u00f6\u00e7 al\u0131yordu.<\/p>\n

M\u00dcSL\u00dcMAN D\u0130N\u0130
\u0130sl\u00e2miyet, feodalite \u00e7a\u011f\u0131nda, en yayg\u0131n dinlerden biri oldu. Arabistan’da feodal imparatorluk, m\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n dinsel toplulu\u011fundan (cemaatinden) ba\u015flayarak kuruldu. \u0130sl\u00e2miyet, Araplar taraf\u0131ndan ele ge\u00e7irilen b\u00fct\u00fcn topraklarda orta\u00e7a\u011f toplumunun ideolojik yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda olu\u015ftu. Daha sonra, Asya ve Afrika \u00fclkelerinde, k\u0131smen de Avrupa \u00fclkelerinde, geni\u015f bir bi\u00e7imde yay\u0131ld\u0131. M\u00fcsl\u00fcman \u00f6\u011fretisi, Arap\u00e7adaki, ba\u011f\u0131\u015flama, fera\u011f, tevekk\u00fcl ve sad\u0131klar (m\u00fcminler) anlamlar\u0131na gelen “\u0130sl\u00e2m” ve “m\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar” (m\u00fcslim) s\u00f6zc\u00fcklerine de\u011fin, y\u00fcr\u00fcrl\u00fckte olan s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fc ve k\u00f6lele\u015ftirme rejimini onayl\u0131yordu.
M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n kutsal kitab\u0131 Kuran, servet e\u015fitsizli\u011fini, Allah taraf\u0131ndan konulmu\u015f ve bu y\u00fczden de de\u011fi\u015fmez bir kural olarak ele al\u0131r. H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131kta oldu\u011fu gibi, isl\u00e2miyet de, yoksullara, yery\u00fcz\u00fcndeki ac\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n ve sefaletlerinin [sayfa 219] avuncunu \u00f6teki d\u00fcnyada aramay\u0131 \u00f6\u011f\u00fctler.<\/p>\n

BUD\u0130ZM
Yay\u0131lmas\u0131 ve etkisi bak\u0131m\u0131ndan budizmin de, d\u00fcnya dinlerinden say\u0131lmaya hakk\u0131 vard\u0131r. “Budizm”, s\u00f6ylenceye g\u00f6re, kurucusu olan Buda’n\u0131n ad\u0131ndan gelmektedir.
Brahmanizmin baz\u0131 tezlerinden ba\u015flayarak eski Hindistan’da geli\u015fmi\u015f olan budizm, ba\u015flang\u0131\u00e7ta, k\u00f6le sahipleri s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n resm\u00ee dini oldu.
Orta\u00e7a\u011fda, hindu dini, zamanla budizmi Hindistan’dan kovdu, ama budizm, bu kez kom\u015fu \u00fclkelerde yeni m\u00fcminler buldu. \u00c7in’de, MS 1. y\u00fczy\u0131lda yay\u0131lmaya ba\u015flad\u0131 ve 4. ve 7. y\u00fczy\u0131llar aras\u0131nda doru\u011funa vard\u0131. Daha sonra, \u00c7in’de, konf\u00fc\u00e7y\u00fcs dini, egemen din oluyor; ama konf\u00fc\u00e7y\u00fcs dini, hi\u00e7bir zaman, budizmi t\u00fcm\u00fcyle ortadan kald\u0131ramad\u0131. Budizm, \u00c7in’den Kore’ye, Japonya’ya, Siyam’a, Birmanya’ya, eski Kambo\u00e7ya’ya, Hindi-\u00c7in yar\u0131madas\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6teki \u00fclkelerine, Seyland’a, Nepal’e, Mo\u011folistan’a yay\u0131ld\u0131.
Buda dininin ideolojisine g\u00f6re, g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcr d\u00fcnya, bir yan\u0131lsamadan, ahiret mutlulu\u011funun yeri ya da nirv\u00e2na olan mistik bir ruhsal ilkenin yan\u0131lt\u0131c\u0131 g\u00f6sterisinden ba\u015fka bir \u015fey de\u011fildir. Bu ilke, \u00f6teki dinlerde Tanr\u0131 ile ki\u015file\u015ftirilen kavramlara uygun d\u00fc\u015fer. Ya\u015fam yaln\u0131zca ac\u0131lard\u0131r, tek kurtulu\u015f nirv\u00e2nay\u0131 aramakt\u0131r. Daha sonra, buda \u00f6\u011fretisi de, cennet-cehennem kavramlar\u0131n\u0131 kabul etti; bu da, buda dinini geni\u015f y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlarca daha kolay kabul edilir hale getirdi ve, ayn\u0131 zamanda onun, feodal seny\u00f6rler s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n resm\u00ee dini, toplumsal e\u015fitsizlikleri hakl\u0131 g\u00f6stermek i\u00e7in getirilmi\u015f bir din olma g\u00f6revlerini g\u00fc\u00e7lendirdi.<\/p>\n

ANT\u0130-FEODAL \u0130DEOLOJ\u0130N\u0130N \u0130LERLEMES\u0130
\u0130dealist ve dinsel \u00f6\u011fretilerin (Avrupa’da h\u0131ristiyanl\u0131k, Asya ve Afrika’da m\u00fcsl\u00fcmanl\u0131k ve budizm vb.) ideolojik [sayfa 220] egemenli\u011fi, kar\u015f\u0131t ak\u0131mlar\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ortadan kald\u0131ram\u0131yordu.
Bask\u0131lara ve kovu\u015fturmalara kar\u015f\u0131n, orta\u00e7a\u011f toplumunun ilerici \u00f6\u011feleri, materyalist fikirleri kullan\u0131p yararlanmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yorlard\u0131. T\u0131pk\u0131 antik\u00e7a\u011fda oldu\u011fu gibi, feodalite de, felsefeler aras\u0131nda amans\u0131z bir sava\u015f\u0131m d\u00f6nemi oldu.
Katolik tanr\u0131bilimciler (Thomas d’Aguin ve ba\u015fkalar\u0131), en ba\u015fta antik\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n baz\u0131 idealist filozoflar\u0131na ve anlam\u0131n\u0131 bozduklar\u0131 Aristoteles \u00f6\u011fretisine dayanarak orta\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n dinsel anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 haz\u0131rlad\u0131lar. Arap d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrleri ise, antik\u00e7a\u011f\u0131n materyalist anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131, \u00f6zellikle Aristoteles’in materyalist \u00f6\u011felerini orta\u00e7a\u011f anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131na sokmaya yard\u0131m ettiler. Bu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrler aras\u0131nda, en ba\u015fta \u0130bn-i Sina’y\u0131 (Avicenne) ve \u0130bn-i R\u00fc\u015fd’\u00fc {Averroes) belirtmek gerekir. \u0130bn-i R\u00fc\u015fd’\u00fcn g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleri, Demokritos’un g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fcne \u00e7ok yak\u0131nd\u0131. \u0130bn-i R\u00fc\u015fd, maddede bir nesnel ger\u00e7eklik ve atomlarda ise madd\u00ee par\u00e7ac\u0131klar (partk\u00fcller) g\u00f6r\u00fcyordu. Her bireye \u00f6zg\u00fc olan “\u00f6l\u00fcml\u00fc can”\u0131n yan\u0131nda, bilince ula\u015fma an\u0131nda can (nefs-i ruh) ile birle\u015fip kayna\u015fan bir evrensel ak\u0131l kabul ediyordu. \u0130nsanlar\u0131n toplumsal durumlar\u0131ndan ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z olarak entelekt\u00fcel e\u015fitlikleri konusundaki demokratik tez, \u0130bn-i R\u00fc\u015fd’\u00fcn g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015fleri aras\u0131nda se\u00e7kin bir yer tutuyordu.
\u0130bn-i R\u00fc\u015fd’\u00fcn fikirleri, onlar\u0131 kendi k\u0131talar\u0131na \u00f6zg\u00fc toplumsal ve ekonomik ko\u015fullara ve orada yerle\u015fmi\u015f olan materyalist geleneklere uygulayan Bat\u0131 Avrupa’n\u0131n \u00f6nc\u00fc d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcrleri taraf\u0131ndan kullan\u0131ld\u0131. Materyalist fikirler, ilerici \u00f6\u011felerin iktidardaki feodaller s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131nda \u00e7ok yararl\u0131 bir silah oldu.
Fransa’da, Siger de Brabant, materyalist anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n \u00f6nde gelenlerinden biri oldu. O, Latin averroizminin (Ibn-i R\u00fc\u015fd-c\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fcn) kurucusu oldu ve anti-feodal ideolojinin teorik temelini yaratt\u0131. Siger de Brabant’\u0131n \u00f6\u011fretisi, Bo\u00e8ce de Dacie’nin \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 ile desteklendi.
Orta\u00e7a\u011f materyalizminin ilk ifadesi, adc\u0131l\u0131k denen, 13. [sayfa 221] y\u00fczy\u0131lda cisimle\u015fen idealist ak\u0131m oldu. Bu ak\u0131m\u0131n yanda\u015flar\u0131 (\u00f6zellikle \u0130ngiliz filozoflar\u0131 Duns Scot ve Guillaume d’Occam) d\u00fcnyan\u0131n madd\u00ee niteli\u011fini tan\u0131yorlar, do\u011fada her \u015feyin ilkesini, bilince g\u00f6re ilk veriyi g\u00f6r\u00fcyorlard\u0131. Evrenin tan\u0131nabilir oldu\u011funu da benimsiyorlard\u0131. Bununla birlikte onlar\u0131n materyalizmi diyalektik de\u011fil, mekanik\u00e7i idi. Daha sonra, (13. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonundan 15. y\u00fczy\u0131la kadar) adc\u0131 felsefede idealist \u00f6\u011felerin g\u00fc\u00e7lendi\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc.<\/p>\n

MEZHEP SAPKINLIKLARI
Anti-feodal muhalefet, varl\u0131kl\u0131 burjuvaziye oldu\u011fu kadar k\u00f6yl\u00fclere ve yoksul kentlilere de dayan\u0131yordu. Dine ve h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcrmekte olan kiliseye kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131ma s\u0131k\u0131 bir bi\u00e7imde ba\u011fl\u0131yd\u0131.
\u00d6yleyse, burjuva mezhep sapk\u0131nl\u0131klar\u0131ndan ve k\u00f6yl\u00fc mezhep sapk\u0131nl\u0131klar\u0131ndan s\u00f6zedilebilir. S\u0131n\u0131f sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n ideolojik bir bi\u00e7imini olu\u015fturan mezhep sapk\u0131nl\u0131klar\u0131, s\u0131k s\u0131k feodal iktidara kar\u015f\u0131 silahl\u0131 ayaklanmalarla birle\u015fiyordu. Bazan, kentli ve k\u00f6yl\u00fc muhalefeti, resm\u00ee dine d\u00fc\u015fman olan mistik \u00f6\u011fretilerde ifadesini buluyordu.
\u0130dealizme ve dine kar\u015f\u0131 bu sava\u015f\u0131m, materyalizmin ve modern tanr\u0131tan\u0131mazl\u0131\u011f\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131n\u0131 haz\u0131rlad\u0131.<\/p>\n

7. HALK YI\u011eINLARININ ANT\u0130-FEODAL SAVA\u015eIMI<\/p>\n

ANT\u0130 FEODAL SAVA\u015eIMIN \u0130KT\u0130SAD\u00ce TEMEL\u0130
Feodal s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fc, k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin ve zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n sert direnmesinin nedeni oluyordu. Emek\u00e7i y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n feodallere kar\u015f\u0131 y\u00fcr\u00fctt\u00fckleri s\u0131n\u0131f sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n k\u00f6keninde, k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck i\u015fletmenin iktisad\u00ee ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile \u00fcreticinin eme\u011finin bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc vermek zorunda oldu\u011fu feodal seny\u00f6r kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131ndaki ekonomi-d\u0131\u015f\u0131 ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki \u00e7eli\u015fki vard\u0131r.
Bu sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131n bi\u00e7imleri, tarihsel somut ko\u015fullara: \u00fcretici g\u00fc\u00e7lerin d\u00fczeyine, \u00fcretim ili\u015fkilerinin bi\u00e7imlerine, siyasal [sayfa 222] kurumlar\u0131n niteliklerine ba\u011fl\u0131 bulunuyordu.
Feodal toplumun ge\u00e7ti\u011fi \u00fc\u00e7 d\u00f6nem boyunca, y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n (en ba\u015fta da k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin) s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcc\u00fclere kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n nedenleri, ama\u00e7lar\u0131 ve bi\u00e7imleri de\u011fi\u015fmi\u015ftir. Elbette ki, her yanda angaryalardan, ve seny\u00f6rlere kar\u015f\u0131 \u00f6teki y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fcklerden kurtulmak iste\u011fi vard\u0131, ama, ancak feodalitenin toplumsal bir bi\u00e7imlenme olarak da\u011f\u0131l\u0131p par\u00e7alanmas\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131ndad\u0131r ki, emek\u00e7ilerin s\u0131n\u0131f sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131, d\u00fczenin temellerini y\u0131kabildi. Feodal \u00fcretim ili\u015fkileri, h\u00e2l\u00e2, \u00fcretici g\u00fc\u00e7lerin ilerlemesine elveri\u015fli olmakta devam ediyorlard\u0131.
Yukarda s\u00f6yledi\u011fimiz gibi, yukar\u0131-orta\u00e7a\u011fda k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131, k\u00f6lelik d\u00fczenine kar\u015f\u0131 y\u00f6neltilmi\u015fti. Kentlerin ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131 ve meta-para ili\u015fkilerinin ileri at\u0131l\u0131m\u0131 ile ay\u0131rdedilen feodalitenin ikinci a\u015famas\u0131, \u00f6zellikle zorlu f\u0131rt\u0131nalarla kendini g\u00f6sterdi. Avrupa’da kentler, kendi kendilerini y\u00f6netme hakk\u0131n\u0131, angarya ve hara\u00e7lar\u0131 azaltma ve d\u00fczenleme hakk\u0131n\u0131 elde etmek i\u00e7in seny\u00f6rlerine kar\u015f\u0131, amans\u0131zca sava\u015f\u0131yorlard\u0131. Biraz sonra, kentlerin kendi ba\u011fr\u0131nda, \u00fcst tabakalarla, kendileri de kent belediyesinin y\u00f6netimine kat\u0131lmak isteyen zanaat\u00e7\u0131 loncalar\u0131 aras\u0131nda ve ensonu, bir yanda zengin kentlilerle zanaat ustalar\u0131, \u00f6te yanda kalfalar ve \u00e7\u0131raklar olmak \u00fczere, bunlar aras\u0131nda sava\u015f\u0131m ba\u015flad\u0131; bu sonuncular\u0131, halk\u0131n en yoksul tabakalar\u0131 da destekliyordu.<\/p>\n

HALK AYAKLANMALARININ ROL\u00dc
K\u00f6yl\u00fclerin s\u0131n\u0131f sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131, \u00e7o\u011fu zaman yoksul kentliler taraf\u0131ndan destekleniyordu. Bu gibi durumlarda, toplumsal \u00e7eli\u015fkiler b\u00fcsb\u00fct\u00fcn alevleniyordu. 13. ve 14. y\u00fczy\u0131lda, k\u00f6yl\u00fc ve yoksul kentli ayaklanmalar\u0131 dalgas\u0131 hemen hemen b\u00fct\u00fcn Avrupa’y\u0131 kaplad\u0131. “K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00c7obanlar” isyan\u0131 denen 1251 isyan\u0131n\u0131; Hollanda’n\u0131n g\u00fcneyindeki ve Fransa’daki 1320 halk hareketini; 1305 ve 1307 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda \u0130talya’y\u0131 sarsan ve Dolcino taraf\u0131ndan y\u00f6netilen hareketi; Fransa’da, [sayfa 223] 1357 ve 1358’in Etienne Marcel ve Jacqueire ayaklanmas\u0131n\u0131; \u0130ngiltere’de, 1381’de, Wat Tyler isyan\u0131n\u0131; Bohemya’da 15. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda Hussite’ler (h\u00fcs\u00e7\u00fcler) devrimci hareketlerini belirtmek gerekir.
B\u00fcy\u00fck halk ayaklanmalar\u0131, Asya’da, a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131p geli\u015fmi\u015f feodalite \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n\u0131 belirledi. Ba\u011fdat Halifeli\u011finde, 8. ve 9. y\u00fczy\u0131llarda halk ayaklanmalar\u0131ndan; Delhi’de (Kuzey Hindistan) 14. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda, Hac\u0131 Molla y\u00f6netimindeki yoksullar\u0131n ba\u015fkald\u0131rmas\u0131ndan; \u00c7in’de 9. y\u00fczy\u0131lda k\u00f6yl\u00fc sava\u015f\u0131ndan ve 14. y\u00fczy\u0131lda “K\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 Mendiller” hareketinden; Kore’de, 1233’teki ve 15. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131ndaki ba\u015fkald\u0131rmalardan s\u00f6zedilmektedir. 15-16. y\u00fczy\u0131llarda Japonya’da isyanlar oldu, vb..
Bu halk hareketlerinin herbirinin kendi \u00f6zellikleri vard\u0131. 1320 halk hareketi ve Jacquerie ayaklanmas\u0131, meta-para ili\u015fkilerinin h\u0131zl\u0131 geli\u015fmesi s\u0131ras\u0131nda artan s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcye kar\u015f\u0131, y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n yan\u0131t\u0131 oldu. 1320 hareketi, \u00f6zellikle Yahudi tefecilere y\u00f6nelmi\u015fti. Jacquerie ayaklanmas\u0131, asl\u0131nda, k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin y\u0131\u011f\u0131nsal yoksulla\u015fmas\u0131na neden olan Y\u00fczy\u0131l Sava\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n sonucuydu. Jacquerie ayaklanmas\u0131na kat\u0131lanlar\u0131n bir tek “program”lar\u0131 vard\u0131: b\u00fct\u00fcn feodal seny\u00f6rlerin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ortadan kald\u0131rmak. Feodal topraklara sald\u0131r\u0131yorlar, k\u00f6yl\u00fc angarya listelerini yak\u0131yorlard\u0131.
Wat Tyler isyan\u0131, tersine, iki program ileri s\u00fcr\u00fcyordu. Bunlardan biri, k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin ki\u015fisel ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131, angaryan\u0131n yerine bir k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00e7iftlik kiras\u0131n\u0131n konmas\u0131n\u0131 vb. istiyordu. \u00d6teki program, daha devrimci oldu. Bu program\u0131n yanda\u015flar\u0131, yaln\u0131z ki\u015fisel ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 de\u011fil, seny\u00f6rlerin kendi topraklar\u0131na ekledikleri kom\u00fcnal topraklar\u0131n geri verilmesini, kilise topraklar\u0131n\u0131n k\u00f6yl\u00fclere verilmesini ve \u00e7e\u015fitli toplumsal tabakalar\u0131n hukuksal bak\u0131mdan e\u015fit olmas\u0131n\u0131 istiyorlard\u0131.
Orta\u00e7a\u011f Avrupa tarihinin en b\u00fcy\u00fck anti-feodal hareketi olan h\u00fcs\u00e7\u00fclerin {h\u00fcssites) sava\u015flar\u0131, bir k\u00f6yl\u00fc sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n, [sayfa 224] bir ulusal kurtulu\u015f hareketinin ve bir ruhban z\u00fcmresine kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131n \u00f6\u011felerini i\u00e7inde topluyordu. Hareket, ad\u0131n\u0131, dikkate de\u011fer \u00c7ek yurtta\u015f\u0131, halk kurtulu\u015funun savunucusu Jean Huss’ten ald\u0131. Katolik kilisesine kar\u015f\u0131, b\u00fcy\u00fck laik seny\u00f6rlere kar\u015f\u0131, Alman imparatoruna kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131ma giri\u015fen, o \u00e7a\u011f \u00c7ek toplumunun \u00e7e\u015fitli s\u0131n\u0131f ve tabakalar\u0131n\u0131n -yoksul k\u00f6yl\u00fc ve kentliler, varl\u0131kl\u0131 k\u00f6yl\u00fc ve kentliler ve k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck soylular\u0131n- herbiri, kendilerine g\u00f6re istemlerini s\u0131ralad\u0131lar.
H\u00fcs\u00e7\u00fclerin sava\u015flar\u0131, Avrupa’n\u0131n bir\u00e7ok \u00fclkelerinde, devrimci hareketin geli\u015fmesine katk\u0131da bulundu.
\u00c7in’deki “K\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 Mendiller” isyan\u0131 da, yabanc\u0131 boyunduru\u011funa kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131ma ba\u011fland\u0131. Hareketin sloganlar\u0131 monar\u015fikti: isyanc\u0131lar zaferi kazand\u0131ktan sonra, imparatorluk iktidar\u0131n\u0131 kurdular. Dinsel ideolojinin etkisi de b\u00fcy\u00fck oldu.
Dinsel sloganlar, Japon k\u00f6yl\u00fclerinin ayaklanmas\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131nda da kullan\u0131ld\u0131. Bu isyanlar, k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin durumunun k\u00f6t\u00fcle\u015fmesinin, derebeylik hara\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131n artmas\u0131n\u0131n, tefecilere olan bor\u00e7lar\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fcmesinin sonucuydu.
Ba\u011fdat Halifeli\u011finde, ayaklanmalar, k\u00f6leli\u011fin dertlerini g\u00f6zetiyordu. 8. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonunda Gurgan’da b\u00fcy\u00fck bir k\u00f6yl\u00fc hareketi kendini g\u00f6sterdi. Orada, belki de tarihte ilk kez, emek\u00e7i y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar, isyan\u0131n amblemi olarak k\u0131rm\u0131z\u0131 bir bayrak kulland\u0131lar. Harekete kat\u0131lanlar “K\u0131z\u0131l Bayrakl\u0131lar” (“Sourkh Alem”) ad\u0131m ta\u015f\u0131yordu. 9. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n birinci yar\u0131s\u0131nda, bas\u0131nda Babek olmak \u00fczere k\u00f6yl\u00fc sava\u015f\u0131 patlak verdi; Babek isyan\u0131, bu \u00fclkelerdeki en b\u00fcy\u00fck halk isyan\u0131 oldu; Azerbaycan’a ve Kuzey-Bat\u0131 \u0130ran’a yay\u0131ld\u0131.
Emek\u00e7ilerin k\u00f6t\u00fc yazg\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n d\u00fczelmesini ama\u00e7layan k\u00f6yl\u00fc sava\u015flar\u0131, feodal toplumun \u00fcretici g\u00fc\u00e7lerinin ilerlemesine katk\u0131da bulundu. \u00d6yleyse bu sava\u015flar\u0131n \u00f6nemi, devrimci ve, nesnel olarak da, ilerlemenin etkeni olmas\u0131ndayd\u0131. K\u00f6yl\u00fclerin dilekleri, genel olarak, feodal angaryadan [sayfa 225] kurtulmak ve i\u015fledikleri topraklara sahip olmak iste\u011finden ileri gitmiyordu. Baz\u0131 ayaklanmalarda, b\u00fct\u00fcn hara\u00e7 ve angaryalar\u0131n kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 isteminde bulunmaya cesaret bile edemiyorlar, onlar\u0131n azalt\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 istiyorlard\u0131. \u0130stemleri az olursa, egemen s\u0131n\u0131flardan \u00f6d\u00fcnler koparabileceklerini bile d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcyorlard\u0131.
\u0130syanc\u0131lar\u0131n \u00f6rg\u00fctten yoksun olu\u015flar\u0131 gibi, k\u00f6yl\u00fc \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6zel ko\u015fullar\u0131n\u0131n gerekli sonucu olan da\u011f\u0131n\u0131kl\u0131klar\u0131 gibi, deneyimli \u00f6nderlerin bulunmay\u0131\u015f\u0131 ve k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin bilgisizli\u011fi de b\u00fct\u00fcn bu isyanlar\u0131 yenilgiye g\u00f6t\u00fcrd\u00fc.<\/p>\n

HALK YI\u011eINLARI SAVA\u015eIMIMIN RUHBAN Z\u00dcMRES\u0130NE KAR\u015eI OLMA N\u0130TEL\u0130\u011e\u0130
\u0130nsanlar\u0131n manev\u00ee ya\u015fam\u0131n\u0131n en \u00e7ok dinsel imgeler ve g\u00f6sterilerle belirlenmi\u015f oldu\u011fu orta\u00e7a\u011fda, kilisenin genel etki ve n\u00fcfuzundan dolay\u0131 halk y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131, s\u0131k s\u0131k rahipler z\u00fcmresine kar\u015f\u0131 bir nitelik al\u0131yordu. Bunun i\u00e7indir ki, onlar\u0131n toplumsal protestolar\u0131, (\u00e7ok \u00e7e\u015fitli g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fc\u015fler alt\u0131nda) bir mezhep sapk\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7izgilerini, yani egemen toplumsal d\u00fczenin bir ele\u015ftirisi niteli\u011fini al\u0131yordu. Bu protesto, otoritesiyle y\u00fcr\u00fcrl\u00fckteki d\u00fczeni onaylayan resm\u00ee kiliseye kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131mla sonu\u00e7lan\u0131yordu. Emek\u00e7iler \u00e7o\u011fu kez dinden esinlendikleri imgelerden yararlan\u0131yorlard\u0131.
Mezhep sapk\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131, \u00e7e\u015fitli bi\u00e7imlere b\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcyordu. Emek\u00e7iler, resm\u00ee ayin y\u00f6ntemlerine, belliba\u015fl\u0131 dinsel dogmalara, \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck bir feodal m\u00fclk sahibi olarak kilisenin kendisine, rahipler z\u00fcmresine, ke\u015fi\u015flere, egemen s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n temsilcilerine kar\u015f\u0131 oldu\u011fu gibi, kilise yarar\u0131na olan y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fcklere de kar\u015f\u0131 koyuyorlard\u0131.
Her dinsel sap\u0131\u015f\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fc \u00f6rt\u00fcl\u00fc toplumsal ve iktisad\u00ee nedenleri vard\u0131. Bu hareketlerin niteli\u011fi, \u015fu ya da bu \u00fclkenin iktisad\u00ee d\u00fczeyinden, s\u0131n\u0131f g\u00fc\u00e7leri oran\u0131ndan ileri geliyordu. Ama mezheplerinden sapanlar\u0131n dinsel fikirleri, kendi kendilerine ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131vermiyordu, onlar\u0131n daha \u00f6nceki anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n [sayfa 226] evrimini yans\u0131t\u0131yordu. Bununla birlikte, bu fikirler ili\u015fkilerinin, yani insanlar aras\u0131ndaki iktisad\u00ee ve toplumsal ili\u015fkilerin de\u011fi\u015fmesi ile birlikte evrim g\u00f6steriyorlard\u0131.
Avrupa’da, mezhep sapk\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131 bi\u00e7iminde kendini g\u00f6steren halk hareketleri, katolikli\u011fi hedef tuttu. Halk y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n, en ba\u015fta k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin, artan s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcye kar\u015f\u0131 protestolar\u0131, bu gibi hareketlerin en niteleyici olanlar\u0131ndan birinin, “K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00c7obanlar” isyan\u0131n\u0131n hareket noktas\u0131 oldu. m\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar taraf\u0131ndan tutsak edilmi\u015f olan Fransa Kral\u0131 Louis IX’a yard\u0131ma gelen bir yoksullar ha\u00e7l\u0131 ordusu, bu harekete neden oldu. Bu harekete kat\u0131lanlar, kendilerine, “Tanr\u0131n\u0131n K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00c7obanlar\u0131” ad\u0131n\u0131 vermi\u015flerdi ve hareketin ad\u0131 buradan geliyordu. Ama ayaklanma, kent n\u00fcfusunun radikal \u00e7evreleri taraf\u0131ndan y\u00f6netildik\u00e7e geni\u015fliyor, isyanc\u0131lar\u0131n ger\u00e7ek ama\u00e7lar\u0131 billurla\u015f\u0131yordu. Kay\u0131tlara g\u00f6re, “K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00c7obanlar”, \u00fctopik bir i\u015fe giri\u015ftiler: “Her \u015feyden \u00f6nce ruhban z\u00fcmresinin, sonra ke\u015fi\u015flerin k\u00f6k\u00fcn\u00fc kaz\u0131mak, ensonu \u015f\u00f6valyelerin ve soylular\u0131n hakk\u0131ndan gelmek.” Hareket, zalimlere kar\u015f\u0131 olan halk\u0131n, ruhban z\u00fcmresine ve katolikli\u011fe kar\u015f\u0131 bir isyan\u0131 haline d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. Katolik kilisesine kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131m i\u00e7inde, tanr\u0131tan\u0131maz anlay\u0131\u015flar do\u011fuyordu. Ama o \u00e7a\u011fda y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar, hen\u00fcz, genel anlam\u0131yla dine kar\u015f\u0131 m\u00fcdahalede bulunamazlard\u0131. Bunun i\u00e7indir ki, “K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00c7obanlar”, katolik kilisesinin yerine, yoksullar\u0131n art\u0131k s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcye boyune\u011fmeyecekleri ba\u015fka bir \u00f6rg\u00fct koymak istiyorlard\u0131. \u0130syanc\u0131lar\u0131n katolik t\u00f6ren ve ayinlerini reddetmeleri buladan geliyordu.
“K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00c7obanlar”\u0131n dinsel fikirleri, isyan\u0131n en y\u00fcksek a\u015famas\u0131nda yoksul k\u00f6yl\u00fc ve kentlilerin \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131n\u0131 dile getiren bir t\u00fcr mezhep sapmas\u0131yd\u0131. Bu bak\u0131mdan, “K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00c7obanlar” hareketinde egemen, hatta kesin rol, kentli n\u00fcfusun varl\u0131kl\u0131 tabakalar\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fclen di\u011fer baz\u0131 mezhep de\u011fi\u015ftirme hareketlerinden farkl\u0131yd\u0131. [sayfa 227]
Birka\u00e7 ay i\u00e7inde, “K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck \u00c7obanlar” hareketi, yenilgiye u\u011frad\u0131. Yenilginin nedenleri, orta\u00e7a\u011fdaki halk isyanlar\u0131n\u0131n yenilgi nedenlerinin ayn\u0131s\u0131 oldu.
Y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n katolik kilisesinin egemenli\u011fine kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131, h\u00fcs\u00e7\u00fcler hareketini de nitelendiriyordu. Huss, kiliseye ait topraklara elkonmas\u0131na, bilisiz, zevk ve e\u011flenceye d\u00fc\u015fk\u00fcn a\u00e7g\u00f6zl\u00fc ki\u015fileri ruhban z\u00fcmresi saflar\u0131ndan kovmaya, ve b\u00f6ylece yeniden “ger\u00e7ek h\u0131ristiyan kilisesi”ni yaratmaya \u00e7a\u011fr\u0131da bulunuyordu. “K\u00f6peklerin \u00f6n\u00fcnden kemi\u011fi al, bo\u011fu\u015fmay\u0131 b\u0131rakacaklard\u0131r; kilisenin mal\u0131n\u0131 elinden al, kiliseden yana olan bir tek papaz bulamayacaks\u0131n” diyordu.
Demek ki Huss, kendisi de, genel anlam\u0131yla, kilisenin egemenli\u011fine kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131km\u0131yordu, yaln\u0131zca katolikli\u011fin etkisini s\u0131n\u0131rland\u0131rmak ve ulusal bir \u00c7ek kilisesi yaratmak istiyordu.
\u00c7evresinde asker\u00ee kamplar\u0131n\u0131 kurmu\u015f olduklar\u0131 Tabor kentinin taboritleri, h\u00fcs\u00e7\u00fcler kamp\u0131n\u0131n radikal kanad\u0131n\u0131n temsilcileri, katolikli\u011fe kar\u015f\u0131 istemlerinde daha ileri gittiler. Taboritler, katolik mezhebine ba\u011fl\u0131 b\u00fct\u00fcn manast\u0131rlar\u0131n, kutsal emanetlerin, heykellerin vb. hemen yokedilmesini \u00f6neriyorlard\u0131.
En devrimci taboritler (yoksul k\u00f6yl\u00fc ve kentlilerin temsilcileri), kiliastik (chiliastique) fikirleri yayanlar, feodal sistemin kalkmas\u0131n\u0131 istiyorlard\u0131. Dileklerinin \u00fctopik niteli\u011finin bilincinde olmaks\u0131z\u0131n, yery\u00fcz\u00fcnde, “Tanr\u0131n\u0131n bin y\u0131ll\u0131k h\u00fck\u00fcmranl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131” kurmak istiyorlard\u0131, (Yunanca “khilias” s\u00f6zc\u00fc\u011f\u00fc “bin” anlam\u0131na gelir.)
Kiliastik fikirler, s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcy\u00fc kald\u0131rmak isteyen halk y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n d\u00fc\u015flerini, onlar\u0131n s\u0131n\u0131fs\u0131z bir topluma kar\u015f\u0131 duyduklar\u0131 a\u00e7\u0131k-se\u00e7ik olmayan istemlerini yans\u0131t\u0131yordu. Katolik kilisesi yerine, apostolik (havarice, papal\u0131ktan gelme) denen ruhbanlarla laikler aras\u0131ndaki ayr\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131n silinece\u011fi demokratik yeni bir kilise koyman\u0131n d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fc kuruyorlard\u0131. Demek ki, devrimci fikirlerine kar\u015f\u0131n, kiliastlar, dinsel kadrolardan b\u00fct\u00fcn b\u00fct\u00fcne vazge\u00e7miyorlard\u0131. [sayfa 228]
En radikal kiliastlar\u0131n anlay\u0131\u015flar\u0131nda tanr\u0131tan\u0131mazl\u0131k fikirleri belirmeye ba\u015flad\u0131; ama tutars\u0131z bir bi\u00e7imde. \u00d6rne\u011fin. tanr\u0131n\u0131n da \u015feytan\u0131n da var olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6\u011fretiyorlar, ama tanr\u0131n\u0131n iyilerin ve do\u011frular\u0131n y\u00fcre\u011finde, \u015feytan\u0131n ise k\u00f6t\u00fclerin y\u00fcre\u011finde oturdu\u011funu ekliyorlard\u0131.
Her ne kadar h\u00fcs\u00e7\u00fcler hareketi bast\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131ysa da, bu hareketin, Bat\u0131 Avrupa’da katolik kilisesinin etkisinin zay\u0131flamas\u0131nda pay\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck oldu.
Rusya’da da halk y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131 s\u0131k s\u0131k egemen ortodoks kilisesine kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131ma giri\u015ferek, feodal s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcye kar\u015f\u0131 ayaklan\u0131yorlard\u0131. 14. ve 17. y\u00fczy\u0131llar aras\u0131nda bir\u00e7ok kent ve k\u0131r emek\u00e7ilerinin, ruhban z\u00fcmresine kar\u015f\u0131 harekete ge\u00e7in g\u00f6r\u00fclmektedir.
14. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n 50-70 y\u0131llar\u0131nda, Novgorod ve Psikov’daki strigolniklerin ayaklanmas\u0131, en tan\u0131nm\u0131\u015f halk mezhep sapk\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131 hareketlerinden biri oldu. Ad\u0131n\u0131, y\u00f6neticilerinden biri olan Karp adl\u0131 strigolnikten (berberden) alan bu hareket, b\u00fcy\u00fck tacirlerin, feodal ve laik seny\u00f6rlerin artan bask\u0131s\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda, kentli zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n ho\u015fnutsuzlu\u011fundan ileri geldi. Strigolnikler, rahipler z\u00fcmresinin a\u00e7g\u00f6zl\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne, kiliseni toprak servetlerini ve ba\u015fka servetleri art\u0131r\u0131p y\u0131\u011fmas\u0131na, \u00f6zg\u00fcr insanlar\u0131n k\u00f6lele\u015ftirilmesine kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131yorlard\u0131.
Harekete kat\u0131lanlar dine kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015fmad\u0131lar; kendi \u00f6z g\u00fc\u00e7leri ile “incil’i yaymaya” \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yorlar ve bu ama\u00e7 i\u00e7in halk\u0131n \u00f6nc\u00fclerini” (ma\u00eetres) se\u00e7iyorlard\u0131.
Egemen s\u0131n\u0131f, strigolnikler hareketini ac\u0131mas\u0131zca bas\u0131nd\u0131. \u00d6nderleri, k\u00e2tip Nikita ve strigolnik Karp idam edildiler. Ama bu mezhep sapk\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131, kesin olarak, ancak 15. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ilk yar\u0131s\u0131nda bast\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131.
H\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcrmekte olan kiliseye kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131m, Asya’da ve Kuzey Afrika’da patlak veren bir\u00e7ok anti-feodal halk hareketlerinin de ay\u0131rdedici \u00f6zelli\u011fi oldu. [sayfa 229]<\/p>\n

MEZHEP SAPKINLI\u011eI N\u0130TEL\u0130\u011e\u0130 TA\u015eIYAN HALK HAREKETLER\u0130N\u0130N ROL\u00dc
Bu ayaklanmalar, feodal s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcye kar\u015f\u0131, otoritesi ile feodal devletleri destekleyen resm\u00ee kiliseye kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131mda \u00f6nemli bir rol oynad\u0131lar. Bu mezhep sapk\u0131nl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n yay\u0131lmas\u0131, inan\u00e7s\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n geli\u015fmesine ve tanr\u0131tan\u0131maz anlay\u0131\u015f tohumlar\u0131n\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131na yard\u0131m etti. Bu mezhep sapk\u0131nl\u0131\u011f\u0131 niteli\u011fi ta\u015f\u0131yan hareketlerin devrimci niteli\u011fi gene de g\u00f6reli oldu. Onlar\u0131n dinsel \u00e7er\u00e7evesi, y\u0131\u011f\u0131nlar\u0131n sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n anti-feodal e\u011filimini zay\u0131flat\u0131yor ve feodal d\u00fczenin egemenli\u011fine kar\u015f\u0131 protestolar\u0131n\u0131n etkisini s\u0131n\u0131rland\u0131r\u0131yordu. [sayfa 230]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

AFR\u0130KA KITASINDAK\u0130 DEVLETLER Bu d\u00f6nemde, g\u00f6zkama\u015ft\u0131r\u0131c\u0131 uygarl\u0131klar, Afrika k\u0131tas\u0131nda Sahra’n\u0131n g\u00fcneyinde de geli\u015fiyor. Feodal devletler ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yor. 13. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda, Gana devleti, Soso kabilelerinin ak\u0131nlar\u0131 sonunda, ge\u00e7mi\u015fteki \u00f6nemini yitirdi. Yava\u015f yava\u015f, Malinkelerin ya\u015fad\u0131klar\u0131 devlet, Mali, Gana’n\u0131n yerini ald\u0131. K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir prenslik olarak Mali, Nijerya ile Bakkon aras\u0131nda 11. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan beri vard\u0131. Tar\u0131m\u0131n, \u00f6zellikle pamuk\u00e7ulu\u011fun ilerlemesi, […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[151],"tags":[],"class_list":{"0":"post-4767","1":"post","2":"type-post","3":"status-publish","4":"format-standard","6":"category-ilkel-koleci-ve-feodal-toplum"},"yoast_head":"\n3.K\u0131s\u0131m , 4. B\u00f6l\u00fcm | Afrika K\u0131tas\u0131ndaki Devletler - narteks.net<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2010\/11\/03\/3kisim-4-bolum-afrika-kitasindaki-devletler\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"tr_TR\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"3.K\u0131s\u0131m , 4. 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K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir prenslik olarak Mali, Nijerya ile Bakkon aras\u0131nda 11. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan beri vard\u0131. 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