{"id":5837,"date":"2011-03-10T14:44:38","date_gmt":"2011-03-10T11:44:38","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/localhost\/wordpress\/2011\/03\/10\/koyluler-savasi-birinci-bolum-friedrich-engels\/"},"modified":"2011-03-10T14:44:38","modified_gmt":"2011-03-10T11:44:38","slug":"koyluler-savasi-birinci-bolum-friedrich-engels","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2011\/03\/10\/koyluler-savasi-birinci-bolum-friedrich-engels\/","title":{"rendered":"K\u00f6yl\u00fcler Sava\u015f\u0131 | Birinci B\u00f6l\u00fcm &#8211; Friedrich Engels"},"content":{"rendered":"<p style=\"text-align: justify;\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"http:\/\/i45.tinypic.com\/i78qpw.jpg\" border=\"0\" width=\"155\" height=\"205\" style=\"float: left;\" \/>Alman halk\u0131n\u0131n da, kendi devrimci gelenekleri var. Ge\u00e7mi\u015fte Almanya&#8217;n\u0131n, \u00f6b\u00fcr \u00fclkelerin en iyi devrimcileri ile \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fclebilir adamlar yeti\u015ftirdi\u011fi, Alman halk\u0131n\u0131n, merkezle\u015ftirilmi\u015f bir ulusta, en b\u00fcy\u00fck sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 verebilecek bir dayan\u0131rl\u0131k ve bir erke g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi, Alman k\u00f6yl\u00fcleri ve halktan kimselerinin (pl\u00e9b\u00e9iens), ard\u0131llar\u0131n\u0131n bug\u00fcn bile \u00e7o\u011fu kez \u00fcrk\u00fcnt\u00fc duyduklar\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ve tasar\u0131lar besledikleri bir zaman oldu.<br \/> \u0130ki y\u0131ll\u0131k sava\u015f\u0131mlardan sonra, hemen her yerde kendini g\u00f6steren gelip ge\u00e7ici gev\u015feme kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda, b\u00fcy\u00fck K\u00f6yl\u00fcler Sava\u015f\u0131n\u0131n kaba, ama g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc ve dayan\u0131kl\u0131 \u00e7ehrelerini, Alman halk\u0131na yeni ba\u015ftan g\u00f6stermenin zaman\u0131 geldi. O g\u00fcnden bu [sayfa 33] yana \u00fc\u00e7 y\u00fczy\u0131l ge\u00e7ti, ve bir\u00e7ok \u015fey de\u011fi\u015fti. Gene de, K\u00f6yl\u00fcler Sava\u015f\u0131 bizim bug\u00fcnk\u00fc sava\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131m\u0131zdan o kadar uzakta de\u011fil, ve has\u0131mlar, b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde, eskilerin t\u0131pk\u0131s\u0131 kalm\u0131\u015f. 1848 ve 1849&#8217;da her yerde ihanet eden s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131 ve s\u0131n\u0131f b\u00f6l\u00fcnt\u00fclerini, daha 1525&#8217;te, geli\u015fmenin daha a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 bir evresinde de olsa, ayn\u0131 hainler rol\u00fc i\u00e7inde g\u00f6r\u00fcyoruz. Ve e\u011fer K\u00f6yl\u00fcler Sava\u015f\u0131n\u0131n g\u00fcrb\u00fcz vandalizmi, son y\u0131llar\u0131n hareketi i\u00e7inde, Odenvald&#8217;da, Karaorman&#8217;da, Silezya&#8217;da, kendini ancak yer yer g\u00f6sterebildiyse, bu durum, her halde, modern ayaklanman\u0131n bir ayr\u0131cal\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturmaz. [sayfa 34]<\/p>\n<p>1<\/p>\n<p> \u0130lkin Almanya&#8217;n\u0131n 16. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015f\u0131ndaki durumu \u00fczerine \u015f\u00f6yle ku\u015fbak\u0131\u015f\u0131 bir g\u00f6zatal\u0131m.<br \/> Alman sanayii, 14. ve 15. y\u00fczy\u0131llar i\u00e7inde, g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir at\u0131l\u0131m g\u00f6stermi\u015fti. Yerel, k\u0131rsal ve feodal sanayi yerine, kentlerin geni\u015f bir pazar, hatta uzak pazarlar i\u00e7in \u00fcretim yapan lonca sanayii ge\u00e7mi\u015fti. Y\u00fcnl\u00fc ve keten dokuma, s\u00fcrekli ve \u00e7ok yayg\u0131n bir sanayi durumuna gelmi\u015fti. Daha o zamanlar, Augsbourg&#8217;da, ince y\u00fcn, keten ve ipek kuma\u015flar dokunuyordu. Dokuma sanayii yan\u0131nda \u00f6zellikle cevahircilerin, heykelcilerin, ta\u015f yontucular\u0131n, bak\u0131r ve a\u011fa\u00e7 grav\u00fcrc\u00fclerinin, z\u0131rh\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n, madalyac\u0131lar\u0131n, tornac\u0131lar\u0131n vb. sanayileri gibi, orta\u00e7a\u011f kilise adamlar\u0131 ve laiklerinin l\u00fcks\u00fcnde bir beslenme [sayfa 35] kayna\u011f\u0131 bulan ustal\u0131k sanayileri de geli\u015fmi\u015fti. En \u00f6nemlileri barutun [10] ve matbaan\u0131n bulunmas\u0131 olan az \u00e7ok \u00f6nemli bir dizi bulgu, sanayiin geli\u015fmesine b\u00fcy\u00fck bir katk\u0131da bulunmu\u015ftu.<br \/> Sanayiin yan\u0131s\u0131ra, tecim de geli\u015fiyordu. Y\u00fcz y\u0131ll\u0131k deniz tekeli sayesinde, Hanse [11] , t\u00fcm Kuzey Almanya&#8217;n\u0131n, orta\u00e7a\u011f barbarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n \u00fcst\u00fcne y\u00fckselmesini sa\u011flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Ve Harise, 15. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonundan itibaren, \u0130ngiliz ve Hollandal\u0131lar\u0131n rekabeti kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda, h\u0131zla \u00e7\u00f6kmeye ba\u015flam\u0131\u015f bulunsa da, Hindistan&#8217;dan Kuzeye b\u00fcy\u00fck ticaret yolu, Vasko de Gama&#8217;n\u0131n bulgular\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131n, Almanya&#8217;dan ge\u00e7meye devam ediyordu. Augsbourg, \u0130talyan ipeklilerinin, Hindistan baharat\u0131n\u0131n ve t\u00fcm Do\u011fu \u00fcr\u00fcnlerinin her zaman b\u00fcy\u00fck ambar\u0131 idi. Yukar\u0131-Almanya kentleri, \u00f6zellikle Augsbourg ve N\u00fcremberg, o g\u00fcn i\u00e7in dikkate de\u011fer bir zenginlik ve l\u00fcks merkezi idiler. Hammaddeler \u00fcretimi de, ayn\u0131 bi\u00e7imde, b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde geli\u015fmi\u015fti. Alman madencileri, 15. y\u00fczy\u0131lda, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n en usta madencileriydiler ve, \u00f6te yandan, kentlerin geli\u015fmesi, tar\u0131m\u0131 orta\u00e7a\u011f barbarl\u0131\u011f\u0131ndan kurtarm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Sadece geni\u015f topraklar\u0131n tar\u0131ma a\u00e7\u0131lmas\u0131 ile kal\u0131nmad\u0131, ama yabanc\u0131 \u00fclkelerden getirilen, ve daha \u00e7ok \u00f6zen isteyen yeti\u015ftirilmeleri, tar\u0131m \u00fczerinde genel olarak elveri\u015fli bir etkide bulunan boya bitkileri ve ba\u015fka bitkiler de ekildi.<br \/> Her \u015feye kar\u015f\u0131n, Almanya ulusal \u00fcretimindeki geli\u015fme, \u00f6b\u00fcr \u00fclkeler \u00fcretimindeki geli\u015fmenin gerisinde kalm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. Tar\u0131m, \u0130ngiltere ve Hollanda&#8217;n\u0131n tar\u0131m\u0131ndan, sanayi de, \u0130talya, Flandre&#8217;lar, ve \u0130ngiltere&#8217;nin sanayiinden \u00e7ok gerideydi ve, deniz ticareti alan\u0131nda, \u0130ngilizler, ve hele Hollandal\u0131lar, daha \u015fimdiden Almanlar\u0131 yenmeye ba\u015flam\u0131\u015flard\u0131. N\u00fcfus, hen\u00fcz \u00e7ok da\u011f\u0131n\u0131kt\u0131. Almanya&#8217;da uygarl\u0131k, az say\u0131da bir sanayi ve ticaret merkezi y\u00f6resinde toplanm\u0131\u015f olarak, deyim yerindeyse, serpme bir durumda bulunuyordu. Bu merkezlerin \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131, birbirlerinden b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde ayr\u0131l\u0131yordu, ve \u015furada burada, e\u011fer varsa, \u00e7ok az bir temas noktas\u0131 vard\u0131. [sayfa 36] G\u00fcney, Kuzeyden bamba\u015fka tecimsel ili\u015fkilere ve bamba\u015fka s\u00fcr\u00fcm yerlerine sahipti. Do\u011fu ve Bat\u0131, hemen her t\u00fcrl\u00fc dola\u015f\u0131m\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131ndayd\u0131lar. Hi\u00e7 bir kent, \u00f6rne\u011fin Londra&#8217;n\u0131n, daha o zamandan \u0130ngiltere i\u00e7in oldu\u011fu gibi, t\u00fcm \u00fclkenin sanayi ve tecim merkezi olabilecek bir durumda de\u011fildi. \u0130\u00e7 ula\u015ft\u0131r\u0131mlar, hemen sadece k\u0131y\u0131 ve nehir ta\u015f\u0131mac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve Augsbourg ve N\u00fcremberg&#8217;den, Kolonya yolu ile, Hollanda&#8217;ya, ve Erfurt yolu ile, Kuzeye g\u00f6t\u00fcren birka\u00e7 b\u00fcy\u00fck ticaret yolu ile s\u0131n\u0131rlan\u0131yorlard\u0131. Nehirlerin ve tecim yollar\u0131n\u0131n uza\u011f\u0131nda, b\u00fcy\u00fck ula\u015ft\u0131rma yollar\u0131n\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda, ancak \u00e7ok az yabanc\u0131 \u00fcr\u00fcn t\u00fcketip, sadece k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir miktarda ihra\u00e7 \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fc \u00fcreterek, orta\u00e7a\u011f sonu ya\u015fama ko\u015fullar\u0131 i\u00e7inde s\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131l\u0131 bir ya\u015fam s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmeye devam eden belli bir say\u0131da k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck kent bulunuyordu. K\u0131rsal n\u00fcfus i\u00e7inde, sadece soyluluk daha geni\u015f \u00e7evreler ve yeni gereksinmeler ile temas durumunda idi. B\u00fcy\u00fck k\u00f6yl\u00fcler y\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131na gelince, yak\u0131n yerel ili\u015fkiler \u00e7er\u00e7evesini ve kendi dar yerel ufuklar\u0131n\u0131 hi\u00e7 bir zaman a\u015fmam\u0131\u015flard\u0131r.<br \/> \u0130ngiltere ve Fransa&#8217;da, tecim ve sanayiin geli\u015fmesi, t\u00fcm \u00fclkedeki \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131n s\u0131k\u0131 bir ba\u011flant\u0131s\u0131, ve, dolay\u0131s\u0131yla, siyasal merkezle\u015fme sonucunu verdi\u011fi halde, Almanya, \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131, ancak, salt yerel merkezler y\u00f6resinde, eyaletler bak\u0131m\u0131ndan birle\u015ftirmesini ba\u015farabiliyor, bundan da, Almanya&#8217;n\u0131n d\u00fcnya ticareti d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda b\u0131rak\u0131lmas\u0131 ile daha da g\u00fc\u00e7lenen siyasal bir da\u011f\u0131lma do\u011fuyordu. Salt feodal imparatorluk da\u011f\u0131ld\u0131k\u00e7a, bir imparatorlu\u011fun \u00e7e\u015fitli par\u00e7alar\u0131n\u0131 kendi aralar\u0131nda ba\u011flayan ba\u011flar da ortadan kalkt\u0131, imparatorlu\u011fun b\u00fcy\u00fck ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131lar\u0131 (vassalleri) az \u00e7ok ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z prensler durumuna d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc, ve imparatorlu\u011fun imparator kentleri ile \u015f\u00f6valyeleri, bazan birbirlerine, bazan prenslere ya da imparatora kar\u015f\u0131 birle\u015ftiler. Nas\u0131l davranaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 bilemeyen imparatorluk h\u00fck\u00fcmeti, imparatorlu\u011fu birle\u015ftiren \u00e7e\u015fitli \u00f6\u011feler aras\u0131nda sallan\u0131p duruyor ve yetkesinden gitgide daha \u00e7ok yitiriyordu. \u0130mparatorluk h\u00fck\u00fcmetinin Louis XI bi\u00e7imi merkezle\u015ftirme giri\u015fimi, t\u00fcm dolaplara ve t\u00fcm zorlamalara kar\u015f\u0131n, sadece [sayfa 37] Avusturya topraklar\u0131n\u0131 bir araya getirmesini ba\u015farabildi. Bu genel d\u00fczensizlikten, bu say\u0131s\u0131z \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar yuma\u011f\u0131ndan yararlananlar ve eninde sonunda yarar sa\u011flamas\u0131 gerekenler, da\u011f\u0131n\u0131kl\u0131k i\u00e7indeki merkezle\u015fmenin temsilcileri, yerel ve eyaletsel merkezle\u015fmenin temsilcileri olan, y\u00f6relerinde imparatorun bile gitgide \u00f6b\u00fcrleri gibi bir prens durumuna geldi\u011fi prensler oldu.<br \/> Bu ko\u015fullar i\u00e7inde, orta\u00e7a\u011fdan kalma s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n durumu b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde de\u011fi\u015fmi\u015f, ve eski s\u0131n\u0131flar yan\u0131nda yeni s\u0131n\u0131flar olu\u015fmu\u015ftu.<br \/> Prensler, y\u00fcksek soyluluktan \u00e7\u0131km\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Daha \u015fimdiden, imparatordan hemen tamamen ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z, ve h\u00fck\u00fcmdar haklar\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7o\u011funa sahip bir durumda idiler. Kendi ba\u015flar\u0131na sava\u015f ve bar\u0131\u015f yap\u0131yor, s\u00fcrekli ordular besliyor, parlamentolar topluyor ve vergiler koyuyorlard\u0131. K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck soyluluk ile kentlerin b\u00fcy\u00fck bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc, daha \u015fimdiden yetkeleri alt\u0131na alm\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Hen\u00fcz do\u011frudan do\u011fruya imparatorlu\u011fa ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 \u00f6b\u00fcr kent ve baronluklar\u0131 da kendi topraklar\u0131na katmak i\u00e7in ellerinde bulunan t\u00fcm ara\u00e7lar\u0131 kullan\u0131yorlard\u0131. \u0130mparatorluk iktidar\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda, kar\u015f\u0131-merkezle\u015ftirici (d\u00e9centralisation) bir etkide bulunduklar\u0131 gibi, bu kent ve baronluklar kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda merkezle\u015ftirici bir etkide bulunuyorlard\u0131. \u0130\u00e7te, y\u00f6netimleri daha \u015fimdiden \u00e7ok keyfi idi. \u00c7o\u011fu kez, ancak i\u015fin i\u00e7inden ba\u015fka t\u00fcrl\u00fc \u00e7\u0131kamad\u0131klar\u0131 zaman z\u00fcmreler temsilcilerini (\u00e9tats) toplant\u0131ya \u00e7a\u011f\u0131r\u0131yorlard\u0131. Canlar\u0131n\u0131n istedi\u011fi gibi vergiler koyuyorlard\u0131. Temsilcilerin vergi oylama hakk\u0131 seyrek olarak tan\u0131n\u0131yor ve daha da seyrek olarak uygulan\u0131yordu. Ve hatta uyguland\u0131\u011f\u0131 zaman bile, prens, vergi \u00f6demeyen, ama vergiden paylar\u0131n\u0131 alan iki z\u00fcmre, yani \u015f\u00f6valyelik ve din adamlar\u0131 sayesinde, genellikle \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011fa sahip bulunuyordu. Prenslerin para gereksinmesi, saraylar\u0131n\u0131n l\u00fcks\u00fc ve geni\u015flemesi, s\u00fcrekli ordular\u0131n kurulmas\u0131 ve artan h\u00fck\u00fcmet harcamalar\u0131 ile birlikte, art\u0131yordu. Vergiler gitgide a\u011f\u0131rla\u015ft\u0131lar. Kentler, \u00e7o\u011fu kez, ayr\u0131cal\u0131klar\u0131 nedeniyle, [sayfa 38] tenanciers) \u00fczerine y\u00fckleniyordu. Dolays\u0131z vergiler yetmedi\u011fi zaman dolayl\u0131 vergilere ba\u015fvuruluyordu. Hazine a\u00e7\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 kapatmak i\u00e7in, maliye sanat\u0131n\u0131n en ince manevralar\u0131 kullan\u0131l\u0131yordu. B\u00fct\u00fcn bunlar yetmedi\u011fi, rehine koyacak hi\u00e7 bir \u015fey kalmad\u0131\u011f\u0131, ve hi\u00e7 bir \u00f6zg\u00fcr imparator kenti bor\u00e7 vermek istemedi\u011fi zaman da, para i\u015flemlerinin en k\u00f6t\u00fcs\u00fcne ba\u015fvuruluyor, kalp para bas\u0131l\u0131yor, hazinenin o s\u0131radaki \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131na g\u00f6re, y\u00fcksek ya da al\u00e7ak, zorunlu dola\u015f\u0131m oranlar\u0131 saptan\u0131yordu. Daha y\u00fcksek fiyatla yeniden satmak \u00fczere, sonra zorla geri al\u0131nan baz\u0131 ayr\u0131cal\u0131klar\u0131n ticareti, t\u00fcm kar\u015f\u0131koma giri\u015fiminin her t\u00fcrl\u00fc hara\u00e7 ve ya\u011fmaya bahane olarak s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fclmesi, vb. vb., b\u00fct\u00fcn bunlar, o \u00e7a\u011fda, prensler i\u00e7in \u00f6nemli ve g\u00fcnl\u00fck gelir kaynaklar\u0131 idiler. Son olarak, adalet de, onlar i\u00e7in s\u00fcrekli ve \u00e7ok \u00f6nemli bir tecim konusu idi. K\u0131sacas\u0131, ayr\u0131ca prensin yarg\u0131\u00e7lar\u0131 ile \u00f6b\u00fcr g\u00f6revlilerinin a\u00e7g\u00f6zl\u00fcl\u00fcklerini de doyurma zorunda bulunan o \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n uyruklar\u0131, &#8220;ataerkil y\u00f6netim sisteminin nimetlerinden bol bol yararlan\u0131yorlard\u0131.<br \/> Orta soyluluk, orta\u00e7a\u011f feodal a\u015fama-s\u0131ras\u0131ndan hemen tamamen silinmi\u015fti. \u00dcyelerinin bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck prensler durumuna gelmi\u015fti; \u00f6b\u00fcrleri, k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck soyluluk saflar\u0131 i\u00e7ine d\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcler. K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck soyluluk, \u015f\u00f6valyeler, h\u0131zla sonlar\u0131na yakla\u015f\u0131yorlard\u0131. K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck soylulu\u011fun b\u00fcy\u00fck bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc, daha \u015fimdiden sefalete d\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015f, ve sadece, asker ya da sivil i\u015flerde, prenslerin hizmetinde ya\u015f\u0131yordu. Bir ba\u015fka b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc, prenslerin ba\u011fl\u0131l\u0131k ve ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7inde bulunuyordu. Az\u0131nl\u0131k, imparatorlu\u011fun dolaysiz ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u00e7inde idi. Askeri tekni\u011fin geli\u015fmesi, piyadenin artan rol\u00fc, ate\u015fli silahlardaki ilerleme, bu soylulu\u011fun a\u011f\u0131r \u015f\u00f6valye olarak askeri \u00f6nemini azaltt\u0131 ve, ayn\u0131 zamanda, m\u00fcstahkem \u015fatolar\u0131n\u0131n zaptedilmezli\u011fine son verdi. t\u0131pk\u0131 N\u00fcremberg zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi, [sayfa 39] sanayiin ilerlemesi ile, \u015f\u00f6valyelerin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 da gereksiz bir duruma geldi. Para gereksinmeleri, y\u0131k\u0131mlar\u0131na b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde katk\u0131da bulundu. \u015eatolarda ya\u015fan\u0131lan l\u00fcks, cirit oyunlar\u0131 ve \u015fenliklerdeki g\u00f6z kama\u015ft\u0131r\u0131c\u0131l\u0131k yar\u0131\u015f\u0131, silah ve at fiyatlar\u0131, toplumsal geli\u015fmenin ilerlemesi ile birlikte artm\u0131\u015f, oysa \u015f\u00f6valye ve baronlar\u0131n gelir kaynaklar\u0131 ya \u00e7ok az artm\u0131\u015f, ya da hi\u00e7 artmam\u0131mt\u0131. Ya\u011fma ve hara\u00e7lar\u0131, b\u00fcy\u00fck yollar e\u015fk\u0131yal\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve bu t\u00fcrl\u00fc ba\u015fka soylu u\u011fra\u015flar ile birlikte y\u00fcr\u00fct\u00fclen \u00f6zel sava\u015flar, zamanla \u00e7ok tehlikeli bir duruma geldi. Uyruklar\u0131n bor\u00e7 ve y\u00fck\u00fcm \u00f6demeleri, eskisinden pek de \u00e7ok bir \u015fey getirmiyorlard\u0131. Artan gereksinmelerini kar\u015f\u0131lamak i\u00e7in, feodal beyler (seny\u00f6rler), prenslerin kulland\u0131klar\u0131 ara\u00e7lara ba\u015fvurmak zorunda kald\u0131lar. K\u00f6yl\u00fclerin soyluluk taraf\u0131ndan s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcs\u00fc y\u0131ldan y\u0131la a\u011f\u0131rla\u015ft\u0131. Serflerin s\u0131k\u0131l\u0131p suyu \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131ld\u0131, angaryac\u0131lar (corv\u00e9able), her t\u00fcrl\u00fc bahane ve etiket alt\u0131nda, yeni vergi ve y\u00fck\u00fcmler alt\u0131na sokuldu. Angaryalar, vergiler, y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fckler, toprak i\u015fleme haklar\u0131, mallar\u0131n\u0131 kullanma hakk\u0131, kal\u0131t\u0131m hakk\u0131, vb., t\u00fcm s\u00f6zle\u015fmeler \u00e7i\u011fnenerek, keyfi bir bi\u00e7imde art\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131lar. Adalet ya esirgeniyor, ya da sat\u0131l\u0131yordu, ve \u015f\u00f6valye, art\u0131k k\u00f6yl\u00fcden para s\u0131zd\u0131rmak i\u00e7in hi\u00e7 bir bahane bulamad\u0131\u011f\u0131 zaman, \u015funa buna bakmadan onu hapse at\u0131yor, ve \u00f6zg\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn\u00fc satt\u0131n almaya zorluyordu.<br \/> K\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck soyluluk, \u00f6b\u00fcr z\u00fcmrelerle (ordre) de iyi ge\u00e7inemiyordu. Ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 (vassale) soyluluk, imparatorluk soylulu\u011fu durumuna gelmeye \u00e7abal\u0131yordu. \u0130mparatorluk soylulu\u011fu da, kendi pay\u0131na, ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 korumaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yordu. Prenslerle olan s\u00fcrekli anla\u015fmazl\u0131klar\u0131n nedeni buydu. \u015e\u00f6valyeler, o kendini be\u011fenmi\u015f havalar\u0131 ile, kendilerine gereksiz bir z\u00fcmre gibi g\u00f6r\u00fcnen din adamlar\u0131 z\u00fcmresinin hem b\u00fcy\u00fck yurtluklar\u0131na, hem de bek\u00e2rl\u0131k ve kilise yasas\u0131 y\u00fcz\u00fcnden b\u00f6l\u00fcnemeyen engin zenginliklerine istekli bir g\u00f6zle bak\u0131yorlard\u0131. Kentlerle ard\u0131 aras\u0131 kesilmeyen sava\u015f\u0131mlar i\u00e7indeydiler. Onlara paraca bor\u00e7luydular; onlar\u0131n topraklar\u0131n\u0131 ya\u011fma ederek, tecimenlerinin yolunu kesip soyarak, sava\u015flarda tutsak [sayfa 40] edilen yurtta\u015flar\u0131n\u0131 haraca keserek ya\u015f\u0131yorlard\u0131. Ve \u015f\u00f6valyeli\u011fin b\u00fct\u00fcn bu z\u00fcmrelere kar\u015f\u0131 sava\u015f\u0131m\u0131, para sorunu onun i\u00e7in giderek dirimsel bir sorun haline geldik\u00e7e, daha da k\u0131z\u0131\u015f\u0131yordu.<br \/> Orta\u00e7a\u011f feodal ideolojisi temsilcisi olan din adamlar\u0131 z\u00fcmresi (cl\u00e9rg\u00e9), tarihsel alt\u00fcst olu\u015ftan daha az etkilenmiyordu. Matbaan\u0131n bulunmas\u0131 ve tecim gereksinmelerinin geni\u015flemesi, bu z\u00fcmrenin elinden sadece okuma yazma tekelini de\u011fil, ama y\u00fcksek k\u00fclt\u00fcr tekelini de alm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. \u0130\u015fb\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc, entelekt\u00fcel alanda da kendini g\u00f6sterdi. Din adamlar\u0131 z\u00fcmresi, yeni hukuk\u00e7ular kast\u0131 taraf\u0131ndan bir dizi son derece etkin g\u00f6revden uzakla\u015ft\u0131r\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6rd\u00fc. Bu z\u00fcmre de, b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde gereksiz bir duruma gelmeye ba\u015flad\u0131, zaten tembelli\u011fi ve artan bilgisizli\u011fi de bunu g\u00f6steriyordu. Ama, ne kadar gereksiz bir duruma geliyorsa, elde olan t\u00fcm ara\u00e7larla durmadan daha da art\u0131rd\u0131\u011f\u0131 engin zenginlikleri sayesinde, o kadar kalabal\u0131kla\u015f\u0131yordu.<br \/> Din adamlar\u0131 z\u00fcmresi de, birbirinden adamak\u0131ll\u0131 ayr\u0131 iki s\u0131n\u0131f bi\u00e7iminde b\u00f6l\u00fcn\u00fcyordu. Feodal kilise hiyerar\u015fisi, aristokratik s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131 olu\u015fturuyordu: piskoposlar ve ba\u015fpiskoposlar, manast\u0131r ba\u015fpapazlar\u0131, manast\u0131r ba\u015fkanlar\u0131 ve \u00f6b\u00fcr y\u00fcksek a\u015famal\u0131 papazlar. Bu y\u00fcksek kilise g\u00f6revlileri, ya imparatorluk prensleri, ya da ba\u015fka prenslerin metbulu\u011fu (suzerainet\u00e9) alt\u0131nda, bir\u00e7ok serfler ve angaryal\u0131lar ile birlikte, geni\u015f topraklar\u0131 egemenlikleri alt\u0131nda tutan feodal beylerdiler. Uyruklar\u0131n\u0131 sadece soyluluk ve prensler kadar ac\u0131mas\u0131zca s\u00f6m\u00fcrmekle kalm\u0131yor, ama bu i\u015fi daha da kinik bir bi\u00e7imde yap\u0131yorlard\u0131. Dolays\u0131z zor d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda, dinin b\u00fct\u00fcn mizik\u00e7\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131; uyruklar\u0131n\u0131n son mang\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6kmek ve kilise varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 art\u0131rmak i\u00e7in, i\u015fkencenin korkun\u00e7luklar\u0131 d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda, aforoz ve g\u00fcnah ba\u011f\u0131\u015flaman\u0131n t\u00fcm korkun\u00e7luklar\u0131n\u0131 kullan\u0131yorlard\u0131. Belge sahtecili\u011fi, bu ulu ki\u015filer i\u00e7in, g\u00fcnl\u00fck ve al\u0131\u015f\u0131lm\u0131\u015f bir para s\u0131zd\u0131rma arac\u0131yd\u0131. Ama, s\u0131radan feodal y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fck ve vergiler d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda, ayr\u0131ca \u00f6\u015f\u00fcr de ald\u0131klar\u0131 halde, [sayfa 41] t\u00fcm bu gelirler onlara gene de yetmiyordu. Halktan daha \u00e7ok para s\u0131zd\u0131rmak i\u00e7in, kutsal resim ve tans\u0131kl\u0131 kutsal evliya e\u015fyas\u0131 \u00fcretmeye, dua yerleri \u00f6rg\u00fctlemeye, g\u00fcnah ba\u011f\u0131\u015flama ticareti yapmaya giri\u015ftiler, ve bu i\u015f, uzun zaman, \u00e7ok b\u00fcy\u00fck bir ba\u015fari ile s\u00fcrd\u00fc.<br \/> Bu y\u00fcksek a\u015famal\u0131 papazlar ile, onlar\u0131n, siyasal ve dinsel sapk\u0131nl\u0131klar\u0131n (h\u00e9r\u00e9sies) yay\u0131lmas\u0131 ile durmadan g\u00fc\u00e7lenen kalabal\u0131k ke\u015fi\u015fler jandarmas\u0131, hem halk\u0131n, hem de soylu\u011fun h\u0131n\u00e7 konusu idiler. Do\u011frudan do\u011fruya imparatorlu\u011fa ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 bulunduklar\u0131 \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde, prensler i\u00e7in bir engel olu\u015fturuyorlard\u0131. Kocag\u00f6bekli piskoposlar ve ba\u015fpapazlar ile onlar\u0131n ke\u015fi\u015fler ordusunun tatl\u0131 hayat\u0131, soylulu\u011fun k\u0131skan\u00e7l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7ekiyor, ve vaazlar\u0131 ile apa\u00e7\u0131k bir \u00e7eli\u015fme durumunda bulundu\u011fu \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde, bunun masraflar\u0131n\u0131 \u00e7eken halk\u0131 k\u0131zd\u0131r\u0131yordu.<br \/> Din adamlar\u0131 z\u00fcmresinin halk tak\u0131m\u0131 (pl\u00e9b\u00e9inne) b\u00f6l\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc, k\u00f6y ve kent b\u00f6lge papazlar\u0131ndan (cur\u00e9) olu\u015fuyordu. Bunlar, kilise feodal a\u015fama-s\u0131ras\u0131n\u0131n d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda idiler, ve zenginliklerinden hi\u00e7 bir pay alm\u0131yorlard\u0131. \u00c7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 pek denetlenmiyordu, ve bu \u00e7al\u0131\u015fma kilise bak\u0131m\u0131ndan ne kadar \u00f6nemli olursa olsun, \u015fimdilik k\u0131\u015flaya sokulmu\u015f ke\u015fi\u015flerin polis hizmetleri kadar gerekli de\u011fildi. Bu nedenle onlara \u00e7ok az para veriliyordu, ve arpal\u0131klar\u0131 da, \u00e7o\u011fu zaman, \u00e7ok de\u011fersizdi. Burjuva ya da halktan geldikleri i\u00e7in, y\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n maddi durumuna, papaz olmalar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131n, burjuva ve halkta sevgi uyand\u0131racak kadar yak\u0131n bulunuyordu. \u00c7a\u011f\u0131n hareketlerine kat\u0131lma, ke\u015fi\u015flerde \u00e7ok seyrek g\u00f6r\u00fclen bir \u015fey olmas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131n, bu, papazlarda kuraldand\u0131. Hareketin teorisyen ve ideologlar\u0131n\u0131 bunlar sa\u011flam\u0131\u015f, ve aralar\u0131ndan, halk tak\u0131m\u0131 ve k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin temsilcisi olan bir\u00e7o\u011fu, bu nedenle, dara\u011fac\u0131nda \u00f6lm\u00fc\u015flerdir. Bundan \u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fc, halk\u0131n rahiplere kar\u015f\u0131 besledi\u011fi h\u0131n\u00e7, bu papazlara kar\u015f\u0131 ancak \u00e7ok seyrek olarak y\u00f6neliyordu.<br \/> Prenslerin ve soylulu\u011fun \u00fcst\u00fcnde imparatorun bulunmas\u0131 gibi, y\u00fcksek ve a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 din adamlar\u0131 z\u00fcmresinin \u00fcst\u00fcnde de [sayfa 42] papa bulunuyordu. \u0130mparatorun, &#8220;ola\u011fan santimi, imparatorluk vergilerini toplamas\u0131 gibi, papa da, Roma saray\u0131n\u0131n l\u00fcks\u00fcn\u00fc \u00f6dedi\u011fi genel kilise vergilerini topluyordu. Bu kilise vergileri, rahiplerin g\u00fcc\u00fc ve say\u0131s\u0131 sayesinde, hi\u00e7 bir \u00fclkede, Almanya&#8217;da oldu\u011fu kadar \u00f6zene bezene ve santim \u015fa\u015fmadan toplanmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00d6zellikle, piskoposluklar\u0131n a\u00e7\u0131lmas\u0131 vesilesi ile al\u0131nan vergilerde durum b\u00f6yleydi. Artan gereksinmeler ile birlikte, yeni para sa\u011flama yollar\u0131 bulundu: kutsal e\u015fya ve g\u00fcnahlar\u0131n ba\u011f\u0131\u015flanmas\u0131 ticareti, papan\u0131n, katoliklerin g\u00fcnahlar\u0131n\u0131 affetmesi dolay\u0131s\u0131yla toplanan arma\u011fanlar vb.. Her y\u0131l, Almanya&#8217;dan Roma&#8217;ya, b\u00f6ylece b\u00fcy\u00fck paralar ak\u0131yor, ve bundan do\u011fan artan bask\u0131, sadece rahiplere kar\u015f\u0131 beslenen h\u0131nc\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fctmekle kalm\u0131yor, ama, \u00f6zellikle, o \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n en ulusal z\u00fcmresi olan soylulukta, ulusal duyguyu da g\u00fc\u00e7lendiriyordu.<br \/> Orta\u00e7a\u011f kentlerinin eski k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck-burjuvalar\u0131, ticaret ve sanayideki geli\u015fme sonucu, birbirinden iyice ayr\u0131 \u00fc\u00e7 b\u00f6l\u00fcnt\u00fc do\u011furmu\u015flard\u0131.<br \/> Kent toplulu\u011funun ba\u015f\u0131nda ayr\u0131cal\u0131kl\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131f (patriciat), halk aras\u0131ndaki deyimle &#8220;e\u015fraf (die Ehrbarkeit) bulunuyordu. Bu b\u00f6l\u00fcnt\u00fc, en zengin ailelerden bile\u015fiyordu. Kent Meclisinde sadece bu aileler toplan\u0131yor ve b\u00fct\u00fcn belediye g\u00f6revlerini bu aileler g\u00f6r\u00fcyorlard\u0131. B\u00f6ylece, bu aileler sadece kent gelirlerini y\u00f6netmekle kalm\u0131yor, ayr\u0131ca bu gelirlerle ya\u015f\u0131yorlard\u0131 da. Zenginlikleri ile, imparator ve imparatorluk taraf\u0131ndan kabul edilen geleneksel aristokratik durumlar\u0131 ile g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc olarak, t\u00fcm kom\u00fcn\u00fc, ve kent uyru\u011fu t\u00fcm k\u00f6yl\u00fcleri, t\u00fcrl\u00fc bi\u00e7imlerde s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcyorlard\u0131. Tah\u0131l ve para tefecili\u011fi yap\u0131yor, her t\u00fcrl\u00fc tekeli kendilerine mal ediyor, baltal\u0131k ve otlak haklar\u0131n\u0131, birbiri ard\u0131na, kom\u00fcn\u00fcn elinden al\u0131yor, kom\u00fcn orman ve otlaklar\u0131ndan salt kendileri yararlan\u0131yor, yollar, k\u00f6pr\u00fcler, kap\u0131lar \u00fczerine keyfi ayakbast\u0131 paralar\u0131 ve ba\u015fka vergiler koyuyor, ve loncasal ayr\u0131cal\u0131klar, yurtta\u015fl\u0131k ve ustal\u0131k haklar\u0131, ve adalet ticareti yap\u0131yorlard\u0131. \u00e7evredeki k\u00f6yl\u00fcler, [sayfa 43] bu b\u00f6l\u00fcnt\u00fcden, soyluluk ya da papazlardan g\u00f6rd\u00fckleri davran\u0131\u015ftan daha iyisini g\u00f6rm\u00fcyorlard\u0131. Tersine, k\u0131rlardaki hepsi de bu b\u00f6l\u00fcnt\u00fcden olan belediye yarg\u0131\u00e7 ve g\u00f6revlileri, para s\u0131zd\u0131rma i\u015finde, aristokratik sertlik ve doymazl\u0131\u011fa, bir de belli bir b\u00fcrokratik incelik kat\u0131yorlard\u0131. Bu bi\u00e7imde toplanan belediye gelirleri, \u00e7ok keyfi bir bi\u00e7imde y\u00f6netiliyorlard\u0131. Salt bir formalite olan belediye muhasebesi, elden geldi\u011fince savsaklan\u0131yor ve i\u00e7inden \u00e7\u0131k\u0131lmaz bir duruma getiriliyordu. Belediye paralar\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7al\u0131n\u0131p a\u015f\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 g\u00fcnl\u00fck i\u015flerdendi. 1848 y\u0131l\u0131n\u0131n o kadar \u00e7ok belediye y\u00f6netiminde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00fcveni k\u00f6t\u00fcye kullanmalar d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcl\u00fcnce, ayr\u0131cal\u0131klarla \u00e7evrili, akrabal\u0131k ba\u011flar\u0131 ve ortak \u00e7\u0131karlarla s\u0131k\u0131 s\u0131k\u0131ya birle\u015fmi\u015f az say\u0131daki bir kast i\u00e7in, kent gelirleri arac\u0131yla b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde zenginle\u015fmenin ne kadar kolay olaca\u011f\u0131 kendili\u011finden anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131r.<br \/> Kentsel kom\u00fcn haklar\u0131n\u0131 her yerde, \u00f6zellikle maliye alan\u0131nda yok etmek i\u00e7in, ayr\u0131cal\u0131kl\u0131lar, gerekli olan\u0131 yapm\u0131\u015flard\u0131. Kom\u00fcnler, hi\u00e7 olmazsa belediye y\u00f6netiminin denetimini ellerine ge\u00e7irmek i\u00e7in, ancak daha sonra, bu efendilerin doland\u0131r\u0131c\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131 dayan\u0131lmaz bir duruma geldi\u011fi zaman, yeniden harekete ge\u00e7tiler. Ve bu i\u015fte, asl\u0131nda kentlerin \u00e7o\u011funda da ba\u015far\u0131 kazand\u0131lar. Ne var ki, loncalar aras\u0131ndaki sonu gelmez uyu\u015fmazl\u0131klar sayesinde, ayr\u0131cal\u0131kl\u0131lar\u0131n direngenli\u011fi, ve imparatorluk ve ba\u011fla\u015f\u0131k kentler h\u00fck\u00fcmetlerinden g\u00f6rd\u00fckleri destek sayesinde, ayr\u0131cal\u0131kl\u0131 belediye meclisi \u00fcyeleri, ister kurnazl\u0131k, ister zorla olsun, az zaman i\u00e7inde, eski egemenliklerini, ger\u00e7ekte yeni ba\u015ftan kurmay\u0131 ba\u015fard\u0131lar. 16. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015f\u0131nda, b\u00fct\u00fcn kentlerde, kom\u00fcn yeni ba\u015ftan muhalefet i\u00e7inde bulunuyordu.<br \/> Ayr\u0131cal\u0131kl\u0131 b\u00f6l\u00fcnt\u00fcye kar\u015f\u0131 bu muhalefet, kendini K\u00f6yl\u00fcler Sava\u015f\u0131 s\u0131ras\u0131nda \u00e7ok a\u00e7\u0131k bir bi\u00e7imde g\u00f6steren iki b\u00f6l\u00fcnt\u00fcden bile\u015fiyordu.<br \/> Bizim bug\u00fcnk\u00fc liberallerimizin \u00f6nc\u00fcs\u00fc olan burjuva muhalefet, zengin ve orta burjuvalar ile birlikte, k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck-burjuvalar\u0131n, [sayfa 44] yerine g\u00f6re, az ya da \u00e7ok \u00f6nemli bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc biraraya getiriyordu. \u0130stemleri, sadece anayasal alan \u00fczerinde toplan\u0131yordu. Bu muhalefet, belediye y\u00f6netimi \u00fczerinde bir denetim hakk\u0131 ve ister kom\u00fcn meclisinin kendisi arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile, isterse kom\u00fcnal (b\u00fcy\u00fck meclis, belediye meclisi) bir temsil arac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile olsun, yasama g\u00fcc\u00fcne bir kat\u0131lma, ayr\u0131cal\u0131kl\u0131 h\u0131s\u0131m kay\u0131r\u0131c\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve ayr\u0131cal\u0131kl\u0131 b\u00f6l\u00fcnt\u00fc i\u00e7inde kendini gitgide daha a\u00e7\u0131k bir bi\u00e7imde g\u00f6steren birka\u00e7 aile oligar\u015fisinin s\u0131n\u0131rland\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 istiyordu. Bundan ba\u015fka, olsa olsa, meclisteki birka\u00e7 yerin, kendi i\u00e7inden sevilmi\u015f k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck-burjuvalar taraf\u0131ndan doldurulmas\u0131n\u0131 istiyordu. Kendisine, \u015furada burada, ayr\u0131cal\u0131kl\u0131lar\u0131n ho\u015fnutsuz ve s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131ndan kopmu\u015f b\u00f6l\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn de kat\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131 bu parti, t\u00fcm ola\u011fan kom\u00fcn meclisleri ve loncalarda, b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011fu olu\u015fturuyordu. Meclis yanda\u015flar\u0131 ve radikal muhalefet, as\u0131l burjuvalar aras\u0131nda \u00e7ok k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir az\u0131nl\u0131k olu\u015fturuyordu.<br \/> Bu &#8220;\u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcl\u00fc, &#8220;yasal, &#8220;rahat, &#8220;ak\u0131ll\u0131 muhalefetin, 16. y\u00fczy\u0131l hareketi i\u00e7inde, kal\u0131t\u0131mc\u0131s\u0131 olan anayasac\u0131 partinin, 1848 ve 1849 y\u0131llar\u0131 hareketi i\u00e7inde oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131 rol\u00fcn t\u0131pk\u0131s\u0131n\u0131, ve ayn\u0131 ba\u015far\u0131 ile nas\u0131l oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6rme f\u0131rsat\u0131n\u0131 bulaca\u011f\u0131z.<br \/> \u00d6te yandan, burjuva muhalefet, tembellik ya\u015fam\u0131 ve gev\u015fek t\u00f6releri kendisinde tepki uyand\u0131ran rahipleri daha da sert bir bi\u00e7imde k\u0131n\u0131yordu. Bu kutsal insanlar\u0131n utan\u0131lacak yasama bi\u00e7imlerine kar\u015f\u0131 tedbir al\u0131nmas\u0131n\u0131, rahiplerin yararland\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00f6zel yarg\u0131lama yetkisi ve vergi ba\u011f\u0131\u015f\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 ve, genel olarak, ke\u015fi\u015f say\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n azalt\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131 istiyordu.<br \/> Halk muhalefeti, s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131ndan kopmu\u015f burjuvalar ve, kalfalar, g\u00fcndelik\u00e7iler ve lumpenproletaryan\u0131n, kentlerin geli\u015fmesinin en d\u00fc\u015f\u00fck derecelerinde bile g\u00f6r\u00fclen bu ayaktak\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n bir\u00e7ok tohum halindeki \u00f6\u011feleri gibi, yurtta\u015fl\u0131k haklar\u0131ndan yoksun kentliler y\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131ndan bile\u015fiyordu. Zaten lumpenproletarya, ge\u00e7mi\u015f toplumun hemen t\u00fcm evrelerinde, [sayfa 45] az \u00e7ok geli\u015fmi\u015f bir bi\u00e7imde g\u00f6r\u00fclen bir olayd\u0131r. Belirli bir ekmek kap\u0131s\u0131 ve ba\u015f\u0131n\u0131 sokacak belli bir yeri olmayan kimseler y\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, tam da bu \u00e7a\u011fda, feodalizmin, her mesle\u011fin, ya\u015fam\u0131n her d\u00fczeyinin, bir\u00e7ok ayr\u0131cal\u0131k arkas\u0131nda mevzilendi\u011fi bir toplum halinde da\u011f\u0131lmas\u0131 ile, b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde artm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. T\u00fcm ileri \u00fclkelerde, serseriler say\u0131s\u0131, hi\u00e7 bir zaman 16. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n birinci yar\u0131s\u0131nda oldu\u011fu kadar y\u00fcksek olmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu serserilerden baz\u0131lar\u0131, sava\u015f d\u00f6nemleri boyunca, ordulara yaz\u0131l\u0131yor, baz\u0131lar\u0131 kap\u0131 kap\u0131 dileniyor, son olarak ba\u015fka baz\u0131lar\u0131 da, kentlerde, g\u00fcnl\u00fck i\u015fler ya da loncalar taraf\u0131ndan kap\u0131lmam\u0131\u015f ba\u015fka u\u011fra\u015flar arac\u0131yla, sefil hayatlar\u0131n\u0131 kazanmaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yorlard\u0131. Bu \u00fc\u00e7 \u00f6\u011fe de, K\u00f6yl\u00fcler Sava\u015f\u0131nda bir rol oynarlar: birincisi, k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin kar\u015f\u0131lar\u0131nda yenik d\u00fc\u015ft\u00fckleri prenslerin ordular\u0131nda; bozguncu etkisi kendini her an g\u00f6steren ikincisi, k\u00f6yl\u00fc komplolar\u0131 ve k\u00f6yl\u00fc \u00e7etelerinde; \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fcs\u00fc de, kentliler partilerinin sava\u015f\u0131mlar\u0131nda. \u00d6te yandan, bu s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n b\u00fcy\u00fck bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn, \u00f6zellikle kentler \u00f6\u011fesinin, o \u00e7a\u011fda, sa\u011fl\u0131kl\u0131 k\u00f6yl\u00fc \u00f6zl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnden hen\u00fcz b\u00fcy\u00fck bir varl\u0131\u011fa sahip bulundu\u011funu, ve modern ayaktak\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n sat\u0131lm\u0131\u015fl\u0131k ve bozulmu\u015fluk derecesine eri\u015fmekten hen\u00fcz uzak oldu\u011funu da unutmamak gerek.<br \/> Kentlerdeki halk muhalefetinin, o \u00e7a\u011fda, \u00e7ok kar\u0131\u015f\u0131k \u00f6\u011felerden bile\u015fti\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyor. Bu muhalefet, eski feodal ve loncasal toplumun s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131ndan kopmu\u015f \u00f6\u011feleri ile, do\u011fmakta bulunan burjuva toplumun hen\u00fcz geli\u015fmemi\u015f, ancak tohum halindeki proleter \u00f6\u011felerini bir araya getiriyordu. Bir yanda, yoksul d\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015f, varolan burjuva d\u00fczene h\u00e2l\u00e2 lonca ayr\u0131cal\u0131klar\u0131 ile ba\u011fl\u0131 zanaat\u00e7\u0131lar; \u00f6te yanda, topraklar\u0131ndan kovulmu\u015f k\u00f6yl\u00fcler ile i\u015flerinden \u00e7\u0131kar\u0131lm\u0131\u015f ve hen\u00fcz proleter durumuna d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fmeyen hizmetk\u00e2rlar. Bunlar aras\u0131nda, \u015fimdilik resmi toplumun d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda kalm\u0131\u015f ve, yasama ko\u015fullar\u0131 bak\u0131m\u0131ndan, o g\u00fcn\u00fcn sanayisi ile lonca ayr\u0131cal\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n izin verdi\u011fi \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde proletaryaya yakla\u015fan, ama, ayn\u0131 zamanda, i\u015fte tam da bu ayr\u0131cal\u0131klar nedeniyle, hemen hepsi [sayfa 46] gelece\u011fin ustalar\u0131 ve burjuvalar\u0131 olan kalfalar vard\u0131. Bu nedenle, bu \u00e7e\u015fitli \u00f6\u011feler kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n parti davran\u0131\u015f\u0131, zorunlu olarak pek g\u00fcvenilmez ve yerine g\u00f6re de\u011fi\u015fen bir davran\u0131\u015ft\u0131. K\u00f6yl\u00fcler Sava\u015f\u0131na kadar, halk muhalefeti, bir parti olarak, siyasal sava\u015f\u0131mlara kat\u0131lmad\u0131. Kendini ancak burjuva muhalefetin bir b\u00f6l\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc, g\u00fcr\u00fclt\u00fcc\u00fc, g\u00f6z\u00fc ya\u011fmada, birka\u00e7 f\u0131\u00e7\u0131 \u015faraba sat\u0131lan bir b\u00f6l\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc olarak g\u00f6steriyordu. Bu muhalefeti bir parti durumuna d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcren \u015fey, k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin ayaklanmalar\u0131d\u0131r; ve hatta o zaman bile, bu muhalefet, istemlerinde ve eyleminde, hemen her yerde, k\u00f6yl\u00fclere ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 kald\u0131, bu da, o \u00e7a\u011fda, kentlerin hen\u00fcz k\u0131ra ne derecede ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131 bulunduklar\u0131n\u0131 ilgi \u00e7ekici bir bi\u00e7imde tan\u0131tlar. Bu muhalefet, ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z bir eylem y\u00fcr\u00fctt\u00fc\u011f\u00fc \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde, k\u0131r \u00fczerin,de kentin sanayi tekellerinin kurulmas\u0131n\u0131 istiyor, kent y\u00f6resi k\u00f6yl\u00fcleri \u00fczerine \u00e7\u00f6ken feodal y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fcklerin kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 ile kent gelirlerinin azalt\u0131lmas\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yordu; k\u0131sacas\u0131, bu \u00f6nlemde, gericiydi, kendi \u00f6z k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck-burjuva \u00f6\u011felerine boyun e\u011fiyor, ve b\u00f6ylece, modern k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck-burjuvazinin, demokrasi firmas\u0131 alt\u0131nda \u00fc\u00e7 y\u0131ldan beri oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131 traji-komediye ilgin\u00e7 bir prel\u00fcd sa\u011fl\u0131yordu.<br \/> Th\u00fcringen&#8217;de, M\u00fcnzer&#8217;in, ve baz\u0131 ba\u015fka yerlerde de, onun \u00e7\u00f6mezlerinin dolays\u0131z etkisi alt\u0131ndad\u0131r ki, kentlerin halk b\u00f6l\u00fcnt\u00fcs\u00fc, tohum halindeki proleter unsur, bir anda hareketin b\u00fct\u00fcn \u00f6b\u00fcr b\u00f6l\u00fcnt\u00fcleri \u00fczerinde a\u011f\u0131r basacak derecede, genel f\u0131rt\u0131na taraf\u0131ndan s\u00fcr\u00fcklendi. T\u00fcm K\u00f6yl\u00fcler Sava\u015f\u0131n\u0131n doruk noktas\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturan, ve bu sava\u015f\u0131n en y\u00fcce \u00e7ehresi olan Thomas M\u00fcnzer&#8217;in \u00e7ehresi y\u00f6resinde toplanan bu oluntu (\u00e9pisode), ayn\u0131 zamanda, en k\u0131sa oluntudur. Bu \u00f6\u011fenin \u00e7abucak y\u0131k\u0131laca\u011f\u0131n\u0131, daha \u00e7ok fantastik bir niteli\u011fe b\u00fcr\u00fcnece\u011fini, ve istemlerinin ifadesinin son derece kar\u0131\u015f\u0131k kalaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 anlamak g\u00fc\u00e7 de\u011fildir, \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc, \u00e7a\u011f\u0131n ko\u015fullar\u0131nda, en dayan\u0131ks\u0131z toprakla kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fan \u00f6\u011fe, bu \u00f6\u011fedir.<br \/> Sonuncusu bir yana b\u0131rak\u0131l\u0131rsa, bu s\u0131n\u0131flar\u0131n alt\u0131nda, ulusun s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fclen b\u00fcy\u00fck y\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131: k\u00f6yl\u00fcler bulunuyordu. T\u00fcm [sayfa 47] toplumsal katmanlar yap\u0131s\u0131: prensler, memurlar, soylular, papazlar, ayr\u0131cal\u0131kl\u0131lar ve burjuvalar, hep bunlar \u00fczerine \u00e7\u00f6k\u00fcyordu. \u0130ster bir prense, ister bir imparatorluk baronuna, ister bir piskoposa, isterse bir manast\u0131r ya da bir kente ba\u011fl\u0131 bulunsun, k\u00f6yl\u00fcye her yerde bir e\u015fya gibi, bir y\u00fck hayvan\u0131 gibi, hatta \u00e7o\u011fu kez daha da k\u00f6t\u00fc davran\u0131l\u0131yordu. Serf olarak, efendisi, onu, can\u0131n\u0131n istedi\u011fi gibi kullan\u0131yordu. Angaryac\u0131 olarak, s\u00f6zle\u015fmeye dayanan yasal y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fckler onu ezmeye yetiyordu, ama bu y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fcklerin kendileri g\u00fcnden g\u00fcne daha a\u011f\u0131r bir duruma geliyordu. Zaman\u0131n en b\u00fcy\u00fck b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc, efendisinin topraklar\u0131 \u00fczerinde \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmakla ge\u00e7irmeliydi. Kendisine kalan az bir zamanda kazand\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015fey \u00fczerinden efendisinin hakk\u0131n\u0131 (cens), \u00f6\u015f\u00fcr\u00fc, y\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcl\u00fcklerini (redevance), harac\u0131 (taille), yollu\u011fu (askeri vergi), devlet vergilerini ve imparatorluk har\u00e7lar\u0131n\u0131 \u00f6demeliydi. Efendisine bir vergi \u00f6demeksizin ne evlenebilir, hatta ne de \u00f6lebilirdi. \u00dcstelik, alelade feodal angaryalar d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda, efendisi i\u00e7in saman, \u00e7ilek, yaban mersini dev\u015firmeli, salyangoz toplamal\u0131, av avlamal\u0131, odun yarmal\u0131yd\u0131, vb.. Bal\u0131k tutma ve avc\u0131l\u0131k yapma hakk\u0131 efendiye aitti, ve k\u00f6yl\u00fc, av hayvanlar\u0131n\u0131n kendi \u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn\u00fc \u00e7i\u011fnemesine elini kolunu ba\u011flayarak bakmal\u0131yd\u0131. K\u00f6yl\u00fclerin ortak otlak ve koruluklar\u0131, beyler taraf\u0131ndan hemen her yerde ellerinden zorla al\u0131nm\u0131\u015f1ard\u0131. Ve bey, k\u00f6yl\u00fcn\u00fcn m\u00fclk\u00fcn\u00fc nas\u0131l diledi\u011fi gibi kullan\u0131yorsa, ki\u015fili\u011fini de, kar\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n ve k\u0131zlar\u0131n\u0131n ki\u015filiklerini de \u00f6yle kullan\u0131yordu. \u0130lk gece hakk\u0131 vard\u0131. Can\u0131 istedi\u011fi zaman, k\u00f6yl\u00fcy\u00fc, onu orada bug\u00fcn sorgu yarg\u0131c\u0131n\u0131n bekledi\u011fi kadar kesin bir bi\u00e7imde i\u015fkencenin bekledi\u011fi hapse att\u0131rabiliyordu. Keyfine g\u00f6re, onu geberesiye d\u00f6vd\u00fcrt\u00fcyor ya da kafas\u0131n\u0131 kestiriyordu. Caroline&#8217;in[12] , o &#8220;kulaklar\u0131 kesme, &#8220;burnu kesme, &#8220;g\u00f6zleri oyma, &#8220;parmaklar\u0131 ve elleri koparma, &#8220;kafay\u0131 kesme. &#8220;\u00e7ark i\u015fkencesiyle \u00f6ld\u00fcrme, &#8220;yakma, &#8220;k\u0131zg\u0131n kerpetenle \u00e7imdikleme &#8220;h\u00fck\u00fcml\u00fcn\u00fcn kol ve bacaklar\u0131n\u0131 atlara ba\u011flay\u0131p \u00e7ektirerek kopartma gibi \u00f6rnek davran\u0131\u015flar\u0131n\u0131n hi\u00e7 biri [sayfa 48] yoktu ki, soylu beyler, k\u00f6yl\u00fclere kar\u015f\u0131, canlar\u0131n\u0131n istedikleri gibi kullanmam\u0131\u015f olsun. Onlar\u0131, bunu yapmaktan kim al\u0131koyabilirdi? Yarg\u0131\u00e7 k\u00fcrs\u00fclerinde, kendilerine hangi i\u015f i\u00e7in para verildi\u011fini \u00e7ok iyi bilen baronlar, rahipler, ayr\u0131cal\u0131kl\u0131lar ya da yasac\u0131lar oturuyorlard\u0131. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc imparatorlu\u011fun t\u00fcm resmi z\u00fcmreleri (ordre), k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcs\u00fcnden ge\u00e7iniyorlard\u0131.<br \/> Gene de, kendilerini ezen boyunduruk alt\u0131nda di\u015flerini g\u0131c\u0131rdatsalar da, k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin ayaklanmas\u0131, \u00e7ok g\u00fc\u00e7t\u00fc. Da\u011f\u0131n\u0131kl\u0131klar\u0131, ortak bir anla\u015fmay\u0131 son derece g\u00fc\u00e7le\u015ftiriyordu. Ardarda gelen ku\u015faklar\u0131n boyune\u011fme al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131, bir\u00e7ok b\u00f6lgede silah kullanma al\u0131\u015fkanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n yitirilmesi, beylerin ki\u015fili\u011fine g\u00f6re bazan hafifleyen, bazan a\u011f\u0131rla\u015fan s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn sertli\u011fi, k\u00f6yl\u00fcleri dinginlik i\u00e7inde tutmaya yard\u0131m ediyordu. Bu nedenle, orta\u00e7a\u011fda, bir\u00e7ok yerel k\u00f6yl\u00fc isyanlar\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr, ama, hi\u00e7 de\u011filse Almanya&#8217;da, K\u00f6yl\u00fcler Sava\u015f\u0131ndan \u00f6nce, k\u00f6yl\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcn bir tek genel, ulusal ayaklanmas\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fclmez. Buna, k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin, tek ba\u015flar\u0131na, kar\u015f\u0131lar\u0131nda prenslerin, soylulu\u011fun ve kentlerin, sa\u011flam bir ba\u011fla\u015fma bi\u00e7iminde birle\u015fmi\u015f \u00f6rg\u00fctl\u00fc g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc bulduklar\u0131 s\u00fcrece, bir devrim yapmaya yetenekli olmad\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 da eklemek gerek. Sadece ba\u015fka z\u00fcmrelerle bir ba\u011fla\u015fma, onlara bir yenme olana\u011f\u0131 kazand\u0131rabilirdi, ama hepsi onlar\u0131 ayn\u0131 derecede s\u00f6m\u00fcrd\u00fckleri zaman, ba\u015fka z\u00fcmrelerle nas\u0131l bir ba\u011fla\u015fma kurabilirlerdi?<br \/> B\u00f6ylece, 16. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda, imparatorlu\u011fun \u00e7e\u015fitli z\u00fcmreleri: prensler, soyluluk, y\u00fcksek din adamlar\u0131, ayr\u0131cal\u0131kl\u0131lar, burjuvalar, halk ve k\u00f6yl\u00fcler, gereksinmeleri son derece \u00e7e\u015fitli ve \u00e7eli\u015fik, karmakar\u0131\u015f\u0131k bir y\u0131\u011f\u0131n olu\u015fturuyorlard\u0131. Her z\u00fcmre \u00f6b\u00fcr\u00fcne kar\u015f\u0131 \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yor, ve b\u00fct\u00fcn \u00f6b\u00fcrleri ile, bazan a\u00e7\u0131k, bazan kapal\u0131, s\u00fcrekli bir sava\u015f\u0131m i\u00e7ine girmi\u015f bulunuyordu. Birinci Frans\u0131z Devrimi \u00e7a\u011f\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fclen, ve \u015fimdi de, en ileri \u00fclkelerde, geli\u015fmenin daha y\u00fcksek bir evresinde saptanan, ulusun o iki b\u00fcy\u00fck kamp bi\u00e7imindeki b\u00f6l\u00fcn\u00fc\u015f\u00fc, o zamanki ko\u015fullar i\u00e7inde olanaks\u0131zd\u0131. Bu b\u00f6l\u00fcnme, [sayfa 49] hatta \u00e7ok yakla\u015f\u0131k bir bi\u00e7imde, ancak ve ancak, ulusun a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 katman\u0131, yani b\u00fct\u00fcn \u00f6b\u00fcr z\u00fcmreler taraf\u0131ndan s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fclen k\u00f6yl\u00fcler ve halktan kimseler ayakland\u0131\u011f\u0131 zaman olabilirdi. E\u011fer Alman ulusunun, feodal soyluluk, burjuvazi, k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck-burjuvazi, k\u00f6yl\u00fcl\u00fck ve proletarya bi\u00e7imindeki, gene de \u00e7ok daha az karma\u015f\u0131k olan g\u00fcncel bile\u015fiminin, \u015fu son iki y\u0131l i\u00e7inde ne kadar b\u00fcy\u00fck bir kar\u0131\u015f\u0131kl\u0131k do\u011furdu\u011fu an\u0131msan\u0131rsa, o \u00e7a\u011fdaki \u00e7\u0131karlar\u0131n, g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f ve \u00f6zlemlerin kar\u0131\u015f\u0131kl\u0131\u011f\u0131 kolayca anla\u015f\u0131lacakt\u0131r. [sayfa 50]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Alman halk\u0131n\u0131n da, kendi devrimci gelenekleri var. Ge\u00e7mi\u015fte Almanya&#8217;n\u0131n, \u00f6b\u00fcr \u00fclkelerin en iyi devrimcileri ile \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fclebilir adamlar yeti\u015ftirdi\u011fi, Alman halk\u0131n\u0131n, merkezle\u015ftirilmi\u015f bir ulusta, en b\u00fcy\u00fck sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 verebilecek bir dayan\u0131rl\u0131k ve bir erke g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi, Alman k\u00f6yl\u00fcleri ve halktan kimselerinin (pl\u00e9b\u00e9iens), ard\u0131llar\u0131n\u0131n bug\u00fcn bile \u00e7o\u011fu kez \u00fcrk\u00fcnt\u00fc duyduklar\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ve tasar\u0131lar besledikleri bir zaman oldu. \u0130ki y\u0131ll\u0131k [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[181],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-5837","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","category-friedrich-engels-koyluler-savasi"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v24.9 (Yoast SEO v24.9) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>K\u00f6yl\u00fcler Sava\u015f\u0131 | Birinci B\u00f6l\u00fcm - Friedrich Engels - narteks.net<\/title>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2011\/03\/10\/koyluler-savasi-birinci-bolum-friedrich-engels\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"tr_TR\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"K\u00f6yl\u00fcler Sava\u015f\u0131 | Birinci B\u00f6l\u00fcm - Friedrich Engels\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"Alman halk\u0131n\u0131n da, kendi devrimci gelenekleri var. Ge\u00e7mi\u015fte Almanya&#8217;n\u0131n, \u00f6b\u00fcr \u00fclkelerin en iyi devrimcileri ile \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fclebilir adamlar yeti\u015ftirdi\u011fi, Alman halk\u0131n\u0131n, merkezle\u015ftirilmi\u015f bir ulusta, en b\u00fcy\u00fck sonu\u00e7lar\u0131 verebilecek bir dayan\u0131rl\u0131k ve bir erke g\u00f6sterdi\u011fi, Alman k\u00f6yl\u00fcleri ve halktan kimselerinin (pl\u00e9b\u00e9iens), ard\u0131llar\u0131n\u0131n bug\u00fcn bile \u00e7o\u011fu kez \u00fcrk\u00fcnt\u00fc duyduklar\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce ve tasar\u0131lar besledikleri bir zaman oldu. \u0130ki y\u0131ll\u0131k [&hellip;]\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2011\/03\/10\/koyluler-savasi-birinci-bolum-friedrich-engels\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"narteks.net\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2011-03-10T11:44:38+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:image\" content=\"http:\/\/i45.tinypic.com\/i78qpw.jpg\" \/>\n<meta name=\"author\" content=\"Tar\u0131k\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:creator\" content=\"@narteks\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:site\" content=\"@narteks\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Yazan:\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"Tar\u0131k\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:label2\" content=\"Tahmini okuma s\u00fcresi\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data2\" content=\"28 dakika\" \/>\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\">{\"@context\":\"https:\/\/schema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"Article\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2011\/03\/10\/koyluler-savasi-birinci-bolum-friedrich-engels\/#article\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/index.php\/2011\/03\/10\/koyluler-savasi-birinci-bolum-friedrich-engels\/\"},\"author\":{\"name\":\"Tar\u0131k\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/narteks.net\/#\/schema\/person\/61f37d9834294b72d31d274e7ed79bca\"},\"headline\":\"K\u00f6yl\u00fcler Sava\u015f\u0131 | Birinci B\u00f6l\u00fcm &#8211; 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